In order to make speech more beautiful and expressive, various language visual means are often used. Among them are phonetic, lexical, and also syntactic, which will be discussed in our article.

What are syntactic means of expression

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between words within a phrase and sentence. Punctuation adjoins it - a set of rules for punctuation marks. Syntax studies such phenomena as intonation and composition of sentences, homogeneous members and appeals, allied or non-union combination of parts of a complex sentence, and so on. All of the above can not only fulfill its main, utilitarian, function, but also be a means of expression.

Below in the table "Syntactic means of expression in Russian" you can see a list and examples.

Means	Example
	We must kill the memory to the end, It is necessary that the soul turned to stone, We must learn to live again. (A. Akhmatova)
	The forest is not the same! - The bush is not the same! - The thrush is not the same! - The whistle is not the same! (M. Tsvetaeva)
Antithesis	You are rich, I am very poor; You are a prose writer, I am a poet; You are blush like a poppy color, I am like death and thin and pale. (A. S. Pushkin)
Inversion	And if you knock on my door, I don't think I can even hear... (A. Akhmatova)
gradation	It was amazing, amazing, great!
Parceling	When the Creator delivers us From their hats! bonnets! and studs! and pins! And bookstores and biscuit shops! (A. S. Griboyedov)
Ellipsis	Beast - lair, Wanderer - the road ... (M. Tsvetaeva)
polyunion	And the heart beats in rapture And for him they rose again And deity, and inspiration, And life, and tears, and love. (A. S. Pushkin)
Asyndeton	A whisper, a timid breath. Nightingale's trills ... (A. Fet)
Rhetorical question	Who among us has not heard of this great man?
Rhetorical address	Human tears, oh human tears, You pour early and late sometimes .. (F. Tyutchev)
Rhetorical exclamation
Syntax parallelism	For someone the fresh wind blows, For someone, the sunset basks ... (A. Akhmatova)

Let's take a closer look at some of these expressions.

Anaphora

Anaphora- this is unity. Each line of poetry or each sentence in prose begins with the same word or group of words, sound or iorpheme. This is a very common device that is widely used in literature, especially in poetry.

There are many examples of the use of anaphora. For example, in this children's song to the verses of the poet Lev Oshanin:

May there always be sunshine

May there always be sky

May there always be a mother

May I always be.

In this example, a group of words is repeated. In addition to anaphora, the author uses syntactic parallelism (several lines in a row have the same syntactic structure).

Often in one work or even a passage, not one means of expression is used, but several.

Antithesis

Antithesis- is a contrast. Also a very common technique. Consider, for example, an excerpt from M. Yu. Lermontov's poem "The Demon":

I swear on the first day of creation

I swear on his last day

I swear on the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph.

Each pair of lines contains a contrast. In addition to the antithesis, the poet uses an anaphora in the first three lines.

Inversion

This is a change from the traditional, neutral word order. For example, in Russian the sequence is perceived as neutral: first the subject, then the predicate. If this is required by the author's intention, the writer or poet can change their places. Let's look at an excerpt from a poem by A. S. Pushkin:

The forest drops its crimson dress,

The withered field is silvered by frost,

The day will pass, as if involuntarily,

And hide behind the edge of the surrounding mountains.

In this passage, we observe in the first three lines inversion (first the predicate, then the subject) and syntactic parallelism.

Russian has a free word order; but this does not mean that any word order is neutral.

What have we learned?

Syntax, like vocabulary and phonetics, takes part in the creation of an artistic image. Means of expressiveness based on syntax: anaphora, epiphora, inversion, parallelism, gradation and others - allow the prose writer and especially the poet to create a multifaceted and expressive picture. As a rule, the author uses not one syntactic device, but several at once.

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The syntactic system of the Russian language is surprisingly rich in visual possibilities. Free (relatively) word order gives Russian syntax grammatical flexibility, gives rise to a huge number of syntactic synonyms, with the help of which it is possible to convey the subtlest semantic nuances. For the language of fiction, it is essential that at the level of syntax all linguistic figurative means that do not exist in the text in isolation, but function in a syntactic unit - a sentence, unite and interact.

Usage one-part sentences is one of the most expressive syntactic means. With the help of nominative sentences naming objects, phenomena, the artist draws pictures of nature, the situation, describes the state of the hero and gives an assessment of what is happening. Nominative sentences are widely used when writing in personal diaries, letters, that is, those genres that are characterized by the immediacy of the presentation of thoughts, the speed of fixing the main details.

Twenty first. Night. Monday.

The outlines of the capital in the mist.

Written by some idiot

What is love on earth. (A. A. Akhmatova).

Autumn. Fairy tale,

All open for viewing.

clearings of forest roads,

Looking into the lakes

Like in an art exhibition:

Halls, halls, halls, halls

Elm, ash, aspen

Unprecedented in gilding.

Linden hoop gold,

Like a crown on a newlywed.

The face of a birch under a veil,

Wedding and transparent. (B. Pasternak).

Quite often, a series of one-part sentences is the result of creating a packaged structure. Parceling(parceller - French. "to divide into small parts") - a grammatical and stylistic device, consisting in the division of a syntactically connected text into intonationally isolated segments, separated by a dot.

"The corridor. Stairs. Another corridor. Door in the wall at the turn. "I can't take it anymore," mutters the little man in the faded dirty shirt, but the only strength left is to drop one word for every stumbling step. Not. I can. More. I don't. I can. I ... "(G. L. Oldie. "Waiting at the Crossroads").

Imitation of the ease of colloquial speech, its inherent syntactic and rhythmic organization.

Period(periodos - Greek “circle, ring, bypass”) - a polynomial complex sentence that is harmonious in its syntactic structure, distinguished by its completeness and completeness of content. It consists of two parts: rise and fall, separated by the top of the period, accompanied by a pause and a sharp drop in tone (in writing it is reflected by punctuation marks “…, -…”), for example:

“Not only am I condemned to such a terrible fate; not only that, before my end, I must see how my father and mother will die in inexpressible torment, for whose salvation I would be ready to give my life twenty times, - not enough of all this: I need to see and hear words and love before my end. which I have not seen ”(N.V. Gogol).

Parallelism is a repetition of the same type of syntactic constructions. For example, “Youth is when you dance as if no one sees you .. When you live, as if you will never die. When you trust, as if you have never been betrayed ... And when you love, as if you have never been hurt. (A. Parfenova).

In a broader sense, parallelism is a connection between separate images, motives, etc. in a work of art, consisting in the same arrangement of similar members of a sentence in two or more adjacent sentences:

Silk thread clings to the wall,

Dounia hits mother with her forehead.

A whole poem can be built on the repetition of an intonational-syntactic pattern (melodic repetition), which gives a special musicality to the poetic text:

In my huge city - night.

From the sleepy house I go - away

And people think: wife, daughter, -

And I remember one thing: the night.

The July wind sweeps me - the way,

And somewhere the music in the window - a little.

Oh, now the wind until dawn - blow

Through the walls of thin breasts - into the chest.

There is a black poplar, and there is light in the window,

And the ringing on the tower, and in the hand - the color,

And this step - to no one - after,

And this shadow is here, but not me.

Lights are like strings of golden beads,

Night leaf in the mouth - taste.

Release from daily bonds,

Friends, understand that I am dreaming of you. (M. Tsvetaeva. "Insomnia").

gradation(Latin gradatio “gradual increase”) - the arrangement of a number of words (usually synonyms, linguistic or contextual) according to the degree of increase (ascending) or weakening (descending) of their semantic and emotional meaning. “There was something imperceptibly oriental in his face, but gray-haired denseness shone, burned, huge blue eyes shone” (V. Soloukhin).

Antithesis(Greek antithesis “opposition”) - a figure of contrast, opposition of concepts in artistic speech. The means of structural opposition can be both opposing conjunctions (a, but), and intonation, or only intonation.

I will laugh with everyone

I don't want to cry with anyone. (M. Yu. Lermontov). - In this case, we have a simple antithesis - the use of a pair of antonyms. Both linguistic and contextual antonyms are used, for example, in the well-known characterization of Onegin and Lensky:

“They got along. Wave and stone. / Poetry and prose, ice and fire / Not so different from each other” (A. S. Pushkin) – contextual antonyms.

The antithesis can be complex, detailed, for example, M. Gorky's story "The Old Woman Izergil" has a three-part composition: two legends connected by the story of the old woman Izergil about her fate are opposite in meaning and reflect the antithesis of the artistic images of Larra and Danko.

A more complex phenomenon of a literary text is the fixation by the author of opposite feelings, which can be interconnected and mutually reversible. So, one of the features of the creative manner of I. A. Bunin is the desire to convey conflicting feelings that simultaneously live in the human soul, inexplicable in rational terms - in the story “The Pass” we read: “Hopelessness is sweet”; "despair begins to strengthen me"; “an evil reproach to someone for everything that I endure makes me happy”; in the story “Cicadas”: “How endlessly unhappy I am, languishing with my happiness, which always lacks something”, the same in his poems: “Is there really happiness even in loss?” (“Growing, growing grave grass…”).

The use of oxymorons is associated with this artistic phenomenon.

Oxymoron(Greek oxymoron “witty-stupid”) - an unusual combination of words that logically exclude each other. The oxymoron emphasizes internal conflict, a contradictory psychological state: “enthusiastically sobbed”, “horror of delight”, “sufferingly happy ecstasy” (I. A. Bunin). Oxymorons are often found in the texts of the works of I. S. Turgenev, but in him they are built on a rather familiar contrast: “chilling politeness”, “proud modesty”. Linguistic contrast can become not only a purely linguistic device, but also a leading compositional tool, which is reflected in the title of the work (for example, “The Living Corpse” by L. N. Tolstoy).

Inversion(lat. inversio “reversal, rearrangement”) - the arrangement of words in a different order than is established by the rules of grammar:

Listen: far, far, on Lake Chad

Exquisite giraffe roams. (N. Gumilyov)

Inversion acquires special significance in poetic speech: here it is not just a stylistic figure, but also a sign of the poetic organization of speech (rhythm-forming function). In addition, unexpected word order can distribute the semantic accents of the sentence differently.

Paraphrase(s)- descriptive phrase, for example: Sad time! Oh charm! - instead of autumn (A. S. Pushkin). Being one of the traditional means of expression in literature of different styles and trends, periphrase allows you to create a special emotional tone, for example, classicists use it to give a solemn sound to odes: the luminary of the day, the gift of the gods, the favorite of the muses; sentimentalists - to give elegance to the syllable, in addition, in the literature of sentimentalism, the paraphrase acquires new functions: it becomes one of the important means of identifying the subjective principle, conveying the author's attitude to the object of the nomination, and sentimentalists designate periphrastic, as a rule, objects that are evaluated positively: “Goddesses are meek , favorites of heaven, Friends of gentle muses and all incorruptible beauties! - graces are described (M. N. Karamzin).

Rhetorical question- a special type of interrogative sentence that does not require an answer, creates internal tension, enhances the emotionality of artistic speech, allows you to logically highlight the most important segments of the text in terms of meaning:

Snowy plain, white moon.

Our side is covered with a shroud.

And birches in white are crying through the forests.

Who died here? Died? Am I myself? (S. Yesenin).

Rhetorical appeal, rhetorical exclamation: The statement can be addressed to an animate and inanimate object, an abstract concept. Rhetorical appeals and exclamations highlight phenomena and objects that are important in the system of values ​​of the author of the text, focus the reader's attention on them:

Moscow! What a huge

Hospice!

Everyone in Russia is homeless.

We will all come to you.

Insomnia pushed me on my way.

Oh, how beautiful you are, my dim Kremlin! -

Tonight I kiss on the chest -

All the round warring earth! (M. Tsvetaeva).

Ellipsis(Greek elleipsis “falling out, omission”) - the omission of one or more members of a sentence without prejudice to the meaning of the statement, which is easily implied due to the context or situation.

We are rich, barely from the cradle, ( came out)

The mistakes of the fathers and their late mind .. (M. Yu. Lermontov).

Elliptical utterances are used to communicate emotional coloring, dynamism, weightiness to the text and contribute to its functional and stylistic reorientation relative to stylistically neutral use. Ellipsis is widely used in both prose and poetry, giving the text a casual, colloquial tone.

Asyndeton- deliberate omission of connecting unions, creates the impression of swiftness, a quick change of pictures.

Here he is with extreme secrecy

Gone for the streets bend,

Uplifting stone cubes

Blocks lying on top of each other

Posters, niches, roofs, pipes,

Hotels, theaters, clubs,

Boulevards, squares, clumps of lindens,

Yards, gates, rooms,

Entrances, stairs, apartments,

Where all the passions are playing

In the name of remaking the world ... (B. Pasternak. "Trip").

polyunion(polysyndeton) - the intentional use of repeated conjunctions.

The repetition of the union "and" is expressive. His anaphora was quite common in Christian church literature - in the Gospel, with the help of this repetition, the solemnity and majesty of the narrative was achieved: “... And rising, He forbade the wind and said to the sea: be quiet, stop. And the wind died down, and there was a great silence. And he said to them: why are you so fearful? how do you not have faith? And they feared with great fear, and said to one another, Who is this, that both the wind and the sea obey Him? (Gospel of Mark).

Polyunion is a fairly common stylistic device that was used in Russian literature of different periods. “The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity.” (V. G. Korolenko). Polyunion slows down the movement, emphasizes the meaning of homogeneous members of the proposal connected by unions.

Questions and tasks

Elena Buzina

Syntactic means of artistic representation

When working on text analysis in the USE tasks, the student has to deal with terms whose meaning he vaguely imagines. This is especially true for syntactic concepts. Not subject-predicate and isolated definitions familiar from textbooks of the Russian language, but concepts associated with the pictorial, artistic possibilities of syntax. Teacher of Russian language and literature from Omsk Elena Vladimirovna Buzina successfully uses generalizing tables in her practice, which allow her students to comprehensively repeat the necessary terms before the exam. One of these tables - just in terms of syntax - we present to your attention today.

It (the language) has a freedom that does not exist in other languages:
from the rearrangement of words in a phrase, the meaning changes.
This freedom, the absence of obligatory clarification, which is born in Western European languages ​​from the rigidity of syntax, the absence of articles - all this provides the writer with endless possibilities, before him is not the depleted soil of past centuries, but a permanent virgin land. ( I. Ehrenburg)

In a work of art, in addition to the communicative task, syntax also has an aesthetic function, participating, together with other methods of linguistic expression, in creating artistic images, in conveying attitudes towards the depicted reality.

A distinctive feature of Russian syntax, according to well-known researchers of the language, is the freedom of movement of words within a sentence. Thus, the free word order gives the Russian syntax grammatical flexibility, generates a huge number of syntactic synonyms, with the help of which the authors manage to convey the subtlest semantic differences ( Golub I.B. Grammatical style of the modern Russian language. M., 1989. S. 153).

This circumstance gives rise to many figurative techniques used by the masters of the Russian word, and also forms the special properties of Russian syntax.

Indeed, syntax is not only special syntactic constructions, syntactic elements or units. This, according to S.I. Lvova, “... the language level at which all linguistic figurative means that do not exist in the text in isolation, but function in a syntactic unit - in a sentence are combined and interact” ( Lvova S.I. Literature lessons. Grades 5–9: A teacher's guide. M.: Drofa, 1996. S. 385).

Basic syntactic means

Reception	Definition	Example	Meaning
Syntactic means of creating an expression
Rhetorical exclamations	Contain a special expression, increase the intensity of speech.	Lush! It has no equal river in the world! (about the Dnieper). (Gogol)	They increase the emotionality of the statement, draw the reader's attention to certain parts of the text.
Rhetorical question	Contains an affirmation or a negative, framed as a question that does not require an answer.	What are you worrying me about? What do you know, boring whisper? .. What do you want from me? Are you calling or are you prophesying? (Pushkin)	Brightness, a variety of emotionally expressive shades. It can be used in colloquial speech, in journalistic and scientific prose.
Parallelism	The same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech.	The stars are shining in the blue sky Waves crash in the blue sea. (Pushkin)	Can reinforce rhetorical question and rhetorical exclamation.
Anaphora	The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas (monogamy).	Only in the world and there is that shady Dormant maple tent. Only in the world and there is that radiant A childish thoughtful look. (Fet)	Enhances the expressiveness of speech, logical selection.
Epiphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a line of poetry.	Why am I known as a charlatan? Why am I known as a brawler? The slough in the heart cleared up like a mist. That's why I was known as a charlatan, That's why I was known as a brawler. (Yesenin)	Strengthening intonations, shades of sounding speech.
Inversion	Changing the usual order of words and phrases that make up a sentence in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech.	... where people's eyes are cut short. (Mayakovsky) Doorman past he's an arrow He flew up the marble steps. (Pushkin)	Gives the phrase a new expressive connotation.
Ellipse	The omission of an element of a statement that is easily recovered in a given context or situation.	We villages - to ashes, cities - to dust, In swords - sickles and plows. (Zhukovsky)	Gives the statement dynamism, intonation of live speech.
Default	A figure representing the opportunity to guess and think about what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.	I do not like, oh Russia, your timid, A thousand years of slave poverty. But this cross, but this ladle is white... Humble birthmarks! (Bunin)	Awakens deep thoughts and feelings. Often used in direct speech.
Various ways of breaking sentence closure
Offset of syntactic constructions	The end of the sentence is given in a different syntactic plan.	But those who are in a friendly meeting I read the first stanzas... There are no others, and those are far away ... (Pushkin)	Discontinuity of speech, excitement of the speaker.
Connecting structures	Phrases do not fit into one semantic plane, but form an associative chain.	Every city has an age and a voice, There are clothes and especially the smell. And a face. And not immediately understandable pride. (Christmas)	Gives expressiveness, segments of the text become emotionally rich and bright.
Nominative representations (isolated nominative)	Names the topic of the last phrase.	Moscow! How much in this sound Merged for the Russian heart... (Pushkin)	Designed to arouse special interest in the subject of the statement, enhances the sound.
Parceling	Dividing the sentence into separate segments (words).	And again Gulliver. Costs. slouching. (Antokolsky)	The logical stress on each word gives them a special power, expressiveness.
Period	Harmonic in form, a complex syntactic construction, characterized by a special rhythm and order of parts, as well as exceptional completeness and completeness of content. Two mutually balanced parts in a period: increase in intonation; lowering intonation. This determines the harmony and intonation completeness of the period.	When the yellowing field worries... (Lermontov) Do I wander along the noisy streets... (Pushkin)	The main provisions in the period make it possible to comprehend the text from different angles, to appreciate the variety of shades.
Polyunion (polysyndeton)	Polyunion and non-union can be used in a close context and give more expressiveness to speech and text.	There was typhus, and ice, and hunger, and blockade. Everything is over: cartridges, coal, bread. (Shengelaya)	Intonation and logical underlining of selected objects.
Asyndeton (asyndeton)		Swedish, Russian - Pricks, cuts, cuts... (Pushkin)	Rapidity, dynamism, saturation of impressions.
gradation	The arrangement of words, phrases or parts of a complex sentence, in which each subsequent one strengthens or weakens the meaning of the previous one.	In autumn, the feather-grass steppes completely change and get their own special, original, incomparable appearance. (Aksakov)	Increasing intonation and emotional intensity of speech.

trails,

lexical means,

syntactic means.

Consider what specific language means are included in each group. Don't let the amount of theoretical material scare you, I'm sure you are familiar with these concepts. It is only necessary to systematize knowledge on this topic.

TRAILS:

TROPES is a generalized name for stylistic devices consisting in the use of the word in a figurative sense.

METAPHOR - a type of allegory, the transfer of meaning from one word to another according to the similarity of signs, a hidden comparison in which there is no comparative turnover. For example: Bird cherry sprinkles with snow. (snow is like blossoming bird cherry tassels). The red sun rolled down like a wheel behind the blue mountains (the sun is like a wheel).

Meaning: increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness.

METONYMY - the replacement of one word or concept by another that has a causal or other connection with the first. For example: Here on their new waves All flags will visit us. (the metonymy "all flags" replaces the verbose expression "ships of all countries under different flags")

Meaning: reception of short expressive speech, economy of lexical means.

IRONY (pretense) - the use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, with the aim of ridicule. For example: Ay, Pug, know she is strong, What barks at the elephant.

Meaning: creating a comic effect.

HYPERBOLE (exaggeration) - a figurative expression consisting in an exaggeration of size, strength, beauty, etc. For example: ... the rocks trembled from their blows, the sky trembled from a formidable song.

Meaning: the figurativeness of satirical works is built on hyperbolas. Hyperbole is a source of humor, a means of ridicule.

PERSONATION - a kind of metaphor, the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts. For example: Evening with a blue candle a star Above my dear lit up.

Meaning: increases the emotional expressiveness of the text.

Synecdoche (generalization) - a special case of metonymy, the designation of the whole through its part. For example: Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts.

Meaning: gives speech brevity and expressiveness, enhances the expression of speech and gives it a deep generalizing meaning.

LITOTA (simplicity) - a figurative expression that underestimates the size, strength, significance of the described object or phenomenon. For example: Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, no more than a thimble.

Meaning: the simultaneous use of litotes and hyperbole sharply and strongly emphasizes the image being created. The stylistic device of double negation. Serves as a means to create a satirical and humorous effect.

EPITET - a figurative definition of an object or action. For example: On the shore of the desert waves He stood full of great thoughts.

Meaning: Creates a visible image of an object, phenomenon, forms an emotional impression, conveys a psychological atmosphere, mood. Characterizes, explains some property, quality of a concept, object or phenomenon; embodies the writer's worldview. An epithet in the description of nature as a means of expressing feelings, moods. Expression of the inner state of a person.

ANTONOMASIA (renaming) - a trope consisting in the use of a proper name in the meaning of a common noun, a type of metonymy. For example: in the Russian language, the use of the words Donquixote, Don Juan, Lovelace, etc., in a figurative sense, has become fixed.

Meaning: This trope is often used in journalism. It is based on the rethinking of the names of historical figures, writers, literary heroes. In fiction, it is used as a means of figurative speech.

ALLEGORY - an allegorical image of an object or phenomenon in order to most clearly show its essential features (in fables, riddles). The expression of an abstract concept or idea in a specific artistic image. For example: in fables, fairy tales, stupidity, stubbornness are embodied in the image of a Donkey, cowardice - a Hare, cunning - a Fox. The allegorical meaning can receive an allegorical expression: "autumn has come" can mean "old age has come."

Meaning: widely used in Aesopian language, a manner that reveals resourcefulness in the invention of reservations, omissions and other deceptive means. Used to bypass censorship. With the help of allegory, ideas of deep philosophical content are allegorically expressed.

PERIPHRASE or PERIPHRASE (descriptive expression) - a stylistic device that consists in replacing the usual one-word name of an object or phenomenon with a descriptive expression. For example: The lion is the king of animals. Sad time, eyes charm (instead of "autumn").

Meaning: the essential aspects, characteristic features of an object or phenomenon are emphasized.

ARTISTIC SYMBOL - figurative words that replace the name of a life phenomenon, the concept of an object with its conventional designation, reminiscent of this phenomenon and giving it a new, deep meaning. For example: Rain is a symbol of sadness and tears. The cuckoo is a symbol of a lonely yearning woman. Birch is a symbol of Russia.

Meaning: gives the word a new, deeper meaning.

LEXICAL TOOLS:

1. HOMONYMS are words that are different in meaning, but the same in pronunciation and spelling. For example, the plumbing system systematically breaks down, and the repairmen do not have any system in operation.

Meaning: give the language liveliness, expressiveness. They can give a comic coloring, ambiguity, the character of a pun. For example: A person with a good command of the language is required to apply stamps.

2. SYNONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, to be afraid, to be afraid, to be afraid, to be frightened, to be afraid, to be horrified, to be afraid.

Meaning: testify to the richness of the language, serve to more accurately express thoughts and feelings.

3. ANTONYMS are words of the same part of speech, opposite in meaning. For example, early - late, sleep - wake up, white - black.

Meaning: make speech bright, emotional. They serve to create contrast.

4. PARONYMS - words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning. For example: prints and typos (have different prefixes), unrequited and irresponsible (have different suffixes).

5. COMMON VOCABULARY - words known to all speakers of Russian, used in all styles of speech, stylistically neutral. For example, spring, water, earth, night.

Meaning: denotes vital objects, actions, signs, phenomena.

5. DIALECTISMS are words belonging to a particular dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects, which include a significant number of original words that are known only in a certain area. For example: kochet - rooster, gutar - talk, beam - ravine.

Meaning: cause the reader to have a more vivid idea of ​​the place where the described events develop in order to characterize the character's speech.

6. PROFESSIONALISMS are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become common; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science. For example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics); the window is free time between lessons in the teacher's speech.

Meaning: used in fiction and journalism as an expressive means for describing the situation, creating a production landscape, speech characteristics of a certain sphere of human activity.

7. JARGONISMS - words limited in their use by a certain social or age environment. For example, they distinguish youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - shortfall of the landing mark), camp jargon.

Meaning: jargon is used in works of fiction in order to characterize the characters and create the desired color.

8. ARGO - a dialect of a certain social group of people (originally the thieves' language - "fenya"), created for the purpose of linguistic isolation (argonisms are used as a conventional sign, as an encrypted code so that people who do not belong to this group could not understand the meaning of these words). For example: ballerina - master key; kipish - disorder, shu; nix - danger; raspberry - hangout.

Meaning: used in works of fiction with the aim of characterizing a character or creating a special flavor.

9. EMOTIONALLY COLORED WORDS - words expressing attitudes towards objects, signs, actions, etc. For example: a nag (not just a horse, but a bad horse), lie (not just tell a lie, but speak it impudently), crave (not just desire, but desire passionately).

Meaning: serve to express the attitude of the speaker to what he is talking about, as well as to characterize the speaker.

10. ARCHAISMS - obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language. For example: young - young, gold - gold; eye - eye, mouth - lips, behold - see.

Meaning: serve to create the flavor of antiquity when depicting antiquity. They perform a bright stylistic role, acting as a means of creating civil-patriotic pathos of speech. They are the source of the sublime sound of speech.

11. HISTORICITY - words that served as the name of the disappeared objects. concepts and phenomena. For example: tivun - an official in ancient Russia, hryvnia - the monetary unit of Kievan Rus, lackey - a person who served in rich houses.

Meaning: they serve to create the color of antiquity, a past era, give the description of past times historical authenticity.

12.NEOLOGISMS - new words that appear in the language. For example: videophone, airbus, Internet.

Meaning: serve to denote those new concepts. which appeared in connection with the development of social relations, science, culture, technology. They are a kind of expressiveness enhancement technique.

13. BORROWED WORDS - words that came into the Russian language from other languages. For example: letter, sail, cedar (from Greek); sandwich, sprats, landscape (from German); veil, coat, taxi (from French); tenor, opera, flute (from Italian); sailor, cabin, boat (from Dutch); basketball, coach, comfort (from English).

Meaning: source of dictionary replenishment.

14. OLD SLAVYANISMS - borrowings from a closely related language associated with the baptism of Russia, the development of spiritual culture.

Peculiarities:

a) combinations RA, LA, LE, corresponding to Russian ORO, OLO, EP. For example: temper - burrows, gates - gates, gold - gold, shore - coast, captivity - full.

b) a combination of ZhD, corresponding to Russian Zh. For example: leader, clothes, need.

d) suffixes STVIE, CHIY, YNYA, TVA, USCH, YUSCH, ASCH, YASHCH. For example: action, helmsman, pride, battle, burning, bearing.

e) prefixes IZ, IS, NIZ. For example: get out, overthrow. Meaning: recreate the color of the era, give an ironic touch.

15. TRADITIONAL POETIC WORDS - a group of words that formed at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, was used mainly in poetry. The main source is Slavism. For example: breg, voice, right hand, forehead, cheeks, fire, bush, lily, roses, myrtle, hand, golden, sweet-sounding, tree, spring, daylight.

Meaning: in the past, high expressive vocabulary, without which not a single poetic work could do. In modern language, ironic use, stylization.

16. FOLK POETIC WORDS - words characteristic of oral folk poetry. For example: kid, dolyushka, path, azure, kruchina, untalented, ant, little thought.

Meaning: create an emotional impression, serve as a means of expressing the national Russian character.

17. Spoken vocabulary is words. which are used in everyday everyday speech, have the character of ease and therefore are not always appropriate in written and book speech. For example: soda (carbonated water), blond (blond, a person with very light hair), gum (chewing gum).

Meaning: in book speech, this context is given a colloquial shade. It is used in works of fiction for the purpose of speech characterization of characters.

18. SPEECH WORDS - words. expressions characterized by simplification, a touch of rudeness, and usually used to express harsh assessments. Colloquial words stand on the border of the literary language, often not desirable even in ordinary conversation. For example: head (head), dreary (unpleasant), vtemyashitsya (strengthen in the mind).

Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes.

19. BOOK VOCABULARY - words that are used primarily in written speech, are used in scientific papers, official and business documents, journalism. For example: hypothesis (scientific assumption), genesis (origin), addressee (person to whom the letter was sent).

Meaning: a means of speech characteristics of heroes, phenomena.

20. TERMS - words or combinations of words denoting special concepts used in science, technology, art. For example: leg, hypotenuse, morphology, conjugation, verb.

Meaning: serve for precise, strictly scientific definition of scientific and technical concepts. Used to characterize the depicted environment and language.

21. PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS - stable combinations of words that usually have a holistic meaning. For example: work with your sleeves rolled up, cherish like the apple of your eye, put sticks in the wheels.

Meaning: give speech brightness and expressiveness.

22. WINGED WORDS - bright and well-aimed expressions of writers, scientists, public figures, as well as folk proverbs and sayings. For example: Not in horse food. How little has been lived, how much has been experienced.

Meaning: as a figurative means of revealing the internal appearance of the character, the characteristics of his speech manner.

23. EMOTIONAL-EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY - words that are evaluative in nature (as opposed to neutral vocabulary). For example: words with a positive color - valiant, radiant; words with a negative connotation - upstart, nonsense.

Meaning: the use of emotionally expressive vocabulary is associated with a specific task, a certain stylistic orientation of the text.

SYNTAX MEANS

Rhetorical address- a conditional appeal to someone in the framework of a monologue. This appeal does not open a dialogue and does not require a response. In fact, this statement is in the form of an appeal. So, instead of saying "My city is mutilated," a writer might say, "My city! How you've been mutilated!"

This makes the statement more emotional and personal.

Syntactic means can be divided into 2 groups:

1. associated with repetitions

polyunion,

asyndeton,

syntactic parallelism,

gradation

2. not related to repetitions

rhetorical question,

rhetorical exclamation,

rhetorical appeal,

parceling,

inversion,

paraphrase,

LEXICAL AND SYNTAXIC MEANS

1. Oxymoron - a technique when one concept is defined through its impossibility. As a result, both concepts partly lose their meaning, and a new meaning is formed. The peculiarity of an oxymoron is that it always provokes meaning generation: the reader, faced with a blatantly impossible phrase, will begin to “finish” the meanings. Writers and poets often use this technique to say something briefly and succinctly. In some cases, the oxymoron catches the eye (“The Living Corpse” by L. N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Y. Bondarev), in others it may be less noticeable, it reveals itself with a more thoughtful reading (“Dead Souls” by N. V. Gogol - after all, the soul has no death, the “dead green of the branches” of the Pushkin Anchar - after all, the green foliage of a tree is a sign of life, not death).

2. Katahreza is a deliberately illogical statement that has an expressive meaning. "Yes, she's a fish! And her hands are some kind of white, fish. It is clear that a fish cannot have hands; the metaphor is built on catachresis.

3. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of something, emphasized syntactically. A classic example of antithesis is Pushkin's characterization of the relationship between Lensky and Onegin:

They agreed. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

Let us note that in Pushkin the underlined antithesis is partly removed by the next line, which makes the situation ambiguous.

Secondly, analyze the list of terms listed in the task. Group them:

trails mark with the letter "T",

lexical means - "L",

syntactic means - "C".

Here's what we got (list of terms from the 2013 demo project):

1. anaphora - C

2. metaphor - T

3. hyperbole - T

4. professional vocabulary - L

5. parceling - C

6. lexical repetition - C

7. opposition - C

8. epithets - T

9. contextual synonyms - L

Thus, the scope of the search for the specified language tool has noticeably narrowed.

The task says that the first 3 means are paths.

There are 3 of them in the list: metaphor, hyperbole, epithets.

We just have to arrange them in the right order.

We recall the definitions of these language tools, re-read the examples indicated in brackets.

Compare definitions with examples.

We put the numbers in the right order: 2,8,3.

It remains to define the last language tool. To which group it belongs is not specified. Therefore, we exclude only trails from the list, because there should be no repetition of numbers.

We have 6 concepts left. Let's reread the examples. The situation becomes clearer when we turn to these proposals. We are talking about the language tool under number 6.

Mission accomplished!

2. Find words in the review text: tropes, lexical means, syntactic means.

4. Group concepts.

5. Recall the definitions of these concepts, compare with examples.

6. Arrange the numbers in the correct order.

Author's punctuation - this is punctuation, not provided for by punctuation rules. Author's signs convey the additional meaning invested in them by the author. Most often, a dash is used as copyright marks, which emphasizes or contrasts: Born to crawl - can't fly or emphasizes the second part after the sign: Love is the most important thing. Author's exclamation marks serve as a means of expressing a joyful or sad feeling, mood.

Anaphora, or unanimity -(gr. anaphora - bringing up). A stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel row (verse, stanza, prose passage).

Anaphora sound. The repetition of the same combinations of sounds.

Thunderstorm demolished bridges, Coffins from a blurry cemetery.(Pushkin)

Anaphora morpheme. Repetition of the same morphemes or parts of compound words. ...Black-eyed girl, Black-maned horse!(Lermontov)

Anaphora lexical. Repetition of the same words Not in vain did the winds blow, Not in vain did the storm go.(Yesenin)

Syntactic anaphora. Repetition of the same syntactic constructions. Do I wander along the noisy streets, Do I enter a crowded temple, Do I sit among the foolish youths, I indulge in my dreams.(Pushkin)

Anaphora strophic(repetition of the same elements at the beginning of stanzas). See the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov "When the yellowing field is agitated ...".

Antithesis - a stylistic device that consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.

exclamation particles - a way of expressing the emotional mood of the author, a method of creating an emotional pathos of the text: O, how beautiful you are, my land! And how good are your fields!

exclamatory sentences express the emotional attitude of the author to the described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration): Disgraceful attitude! How can you save happiness! Exclamatory sentences also express a call to action: Let's save our soul as a shrine!

Gradation - stylistic figure, which consists in the consequent injection or, conversely, the weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world! Gradation is ascending (strengthening of the feature) and descending (weakening of the feature).

Inversion -(from lat. inversio - permutation) - changing the order of words in a sentence to achieve a certain artistic goal, for example, to enhance emotional perception. An agile stream runs from the mountain (Tyutchev). it reverse word order in a sentence. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the adverb of the mode of action is before the verb: The youth of today quickly realized the falsity of this truth. And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules. This is a strong expressive means used in emotional, excited speech: Beloved homeland, my native land, should we take care of you!

Composite joint - is the repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of a word or words from the previous sentence, usually ending it: She did everything for meMotherland. Motherland taught me, raised me, gave me a ticket tolife. Life, which I am proud of.

Polyunion - a rhetorical figure, consisting in the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the enumerated concepts: And thunder did not strikeand the sky did not fall to the ground,and the rivers did not overflow from such grief!

Parceling - the technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even into separate words. Its purpose is to give speech intonational expression by its abrupt pronunciation: The poet suddenly stood up. Turned pale.

Repeat - conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to enhance the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: Pushkin wassufferer, sufferer in the full sense of the word.

Connecting structures - construction of the text, in which each subsequent part, continuing the first, main one, is separated from it by a long pause, which is indicated by a dot, sometimes an ellipsis or a dash. This is a means of creating emotional pathos of the text: Belorussky railway station on Victory Day. And a crowd of greeters. And tears. And the bitterness of loss.

Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations - a special means of creating the emotionality of speech, expressing the author's position.

Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters, who hasn't scolded them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write in it their useless complaint of oppression, rudeness and malfunction? Who does not revere them as monsters of the human race, equal to the deceased clerks, or at least the Murom robbers?

What summer, what summer? Yes, it's just magic!

Syntactic parallelism - the same construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author seeks to highlight, emphasize the expressed idea: Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word.

A combination of short simple and long complex or complicated sentences with a variety of turnovers helps to convey the pathos of the article, the emotional mood of the author.

“Binoculars. Binoculars. people want to be closer to the Mona Lisa. Consider the pores of her skin, eyelashes. Glare pupils. They seem to feel the breath of Mona Lisa. They, like Vasari, feel that “the eyes of the Gioconda have that brilliance and that moisture that are usually seen in a living person ... and in the deepening of the neck, with a careful look, you can see the beating of the pulse ... And they see and hear it. And it's not a miracle. Such is the skill of Leonardo."

“1855. The zenith of Delacroix's glory. Paris. Palace of Fine Arts ... in the central hall of the exposition - thirty-five paintings of the great romantic.

One-part, incomplete sentences make the author's speech more expressive, emotional, enhance the emotional pathos of the text: Gioconda. A human babble. Whisper. The rustle of dresses. Quiet steps ... Not a single stroke, - I hear the words. - No smears. How alive.

Epiphora - the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: I've been walking all my lifeto you. I have believed all my lifeinto you. I have loved all my lifeyou.

Table 3. Identification of figurative and expressive means (example)

"All mine," said the gold; “All mine,” said damask steel; “I will buy everything,” said the gold; "I'll take everything," said the bulat.	a naphora, epiphora	To reinforce the previous word
You are poor, you are abundant, You are powerful, you are powerless, Mother Russia	antithesis, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal	to create contrast
Yes, it was bad weather! What a storm! Whirlwind, hurricane, cyclone, tornado, typhoon hit us	gradation	gives rise or fall impressions
The forest drops its crimson dress, The withered field is silvered by frost.	inversion	arrangement of words in a special order to enhance expressiveness
Young old age. Not everyone is blessed with such happiness!	oxymoron	gives originality
To sing about Russia - what to strive for in the temple. About Russia to sing - what to meet spring	syntactic parallelism	the same construction of sentences
Beast - lair, Wanderer - road	ellipsis	gives life to speech
No, I wanted: maybe you ...	default	deliberate understatement so that the reader completes the picture
This summer I saw the sea. First time.	parceling	part of the sentence is separated from the main one to focus attention
Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts	asyndeton	shows dynamics
And the sling, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger spare the winner years	polyunion	emphasizes uniformity, gives expressiveness

Literary analysis of the lyricalworks

As an example of literary analysis, let us turn to the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Farewell, unwashed Russia...":

Farewell, unwashed Russia,

Country of slaves, country of masters.

And you, blue uniforms,

And you, their devoted people.

Perhaps behind the wall of the Caucasus

I will hide from your pashas,

From their all-seeing eye

From their all-hearing ears.

1. The poem "Farewell, unwashed Russia ..." was written in 1841 before the second exile of the poet to the Caucasus. Published only in 1887. 40s of the XIX century. are characterized as a time of social passivity of society, which replaced the national upsurge of the people in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising of 1825.

2. The work belongs to the mature stage in the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, the heyday of his poetic talent. In the 40s, such masterpieces of the poet's civil lyrics were written as "January 1st", "Both boring and sad ...", "Motherland", "Clouds", etc. The poem "Farewell, unwashed Russia ... ”reflects the traditions of Decembrist poetry with its high civic pathos and call for social protest. For this stage in the work of M.Yu. Lermontov was characterized by a sharply critical perception of reality, bitterness and the motive of loneliness, a feeling of a deep discrepancy between dreams and real life. All these features are reflected in the poem under consideration.

3. The work belongs to lyrics and is characterized by a pronounced subjective attitude to the described reality. This is a lyrical monologue of the author, which contains a challenge to autocratic Russia. The work is distinguished by limited descriptiveness, rhetoric, conventionality (cf., for example, a hint of total surveillance, eavesdropping, suppression of freedom, dissent - due to hyperbolization and the ability to turn a detail into a symbol: from their all-seeing eye, from their all-hearing ears).

4. The work belongs to the genre lyric poem - this is an appeal to "the country of slaves, the country of masters." The accusatory pathos of the work, its angry intonation and clear rhythm are formed not only due to the special vocabulary and syntax, but also due to the poetic meter chosen by the author - iambic tetrameter. N.S. Gumilyov said about this size: “Each meter has its own soul, its own characteristics and tasks. Yamb, as if descending the stairs, ... is free, clear, firm and perfectly conveys human speech, the intensity of human will. The latter is especially noticeable in the analyzed poem.

The factors of “the unity of the verse series” and “the tightness of it”, noted by Yu.N. Tynyanov in poetry, are fully characteristic of the work under consideration, which is distinguished by the harmonious correspondence of form and content, the accuracy of poetic word usage and the aesthetic motivation of syntactic constructions. Semantic richness, laconism, lack of verbosity, rhetoric are important features of the poem.

The theme of the poem can be summarized as civil, antiserfdom. This is a work about the motherland, full of pain and bitterness for the people, who are passive and oppressed by the autocracy. The poem is characterized by monologism, a tendency towards expressiveness and open appraisal.

6. The main theme in the work is the theme of the motherland and the fate of the Russian people. This is a cross-cutting theme in Lermontov's poetry (cf. poems: “Russian Song”, “Autumn”, “Will”, “The Last Son of Liberty”, “You are beautiful, the fields of the native land ...”, “I look at the future with fear”, Rodina, Duma). Unlike other works of Lermontov, where there is a contrast between the heroic past of Russia and gloomy reality, the poem in question presents the contemporary Russia of the poet with its despotic orders worthy of denunciation.

7. The composition of a small poem, consisting of two stanzas, is simple. The key statement - a maxim, reflecting the theme and idea of ​​the work, opens the work, built in the form of an excited monologue-reflection of the lyrical hero. The following presentation reveals and complements the meaning of the key statement. Thus, the general logical scheme of a poetic text includes a thesis and arguments (Scheme 6).

8. As for pathos analyzed poem, it can be defined as a combination of the tragic and satirical with elements of irony.

The pathos of the work is associated with the poet's characteristic state of "transition" from romanticism to realism, their peculiar combination. The text shows the reflection of the author, his self-absorption, tragic discord with the surrounding reality, longing for the high, perfect, characteristic for romance. At the same time, the poem embodies specific historical details of a certain stage in the development of society, expressed in artistic form, the author openly criticizes the existing order of things in the spirit of realism. In the poetic work under consideration, conditional forms characteristic of a satirical image are presented: paraphrase blue uniforms(about the royal gendarmes - the guardians of the autocratic order, who wore blue uniforms); Pasha(their ironic designation by the name of Turkish military dignitaries); all-seeing eye, all-hearing ears symbols that personify the brutal order in the country, based on denunciations and surveillance. rhetoric, which distinguishes the poem, is expressed by the excited appeal "Farewell, unwashed Russia ...", the use of vivid epithets, synecdoches and paraphrases (blue uniforms) metaphors (unwashed Russia, the wall of the Caucasus), hyperbole (From their all-seeing eye, / From their all-hearing ears).

9. General emotional tone works - angry, indignant, painted with pain and bitterness for the outraged people. The key in the work are the images of Russia, the people and the royal gendarmes. If in the poem "Motherland" the poet admitted: "I love the Fatherland, but with a strange love ...", then this "strangeness" and a special attitude towards Russia are revealed in the analyzed text, reflecting a complex range of feelings: hatred and love, pain and bitterness. Estimated epithet "unwashed", i.e. dirty,- in the context of the poem, it has the actual meaning of “trans. immoral, immoral." The following exposition reveals the essence of this through the device of contrast: land of slaves, land of masters. In shaping the image of the people, silently remaining in slavery, an important role belongs to the epithet "devotee" (And you, a devoted people to them). Devotee - i.e. "full of love and fidelity", resigned. It is this circumstance that deeply revolts the lyrical hero, filling his heart with pain.

The images of the royal gendarmes are very expressive, formed on the basis of the associative-semantic connection of lexical means: blue uniforms, pashas, ​​all-seeing eye, all-hearing ears. The image of the lyrical hero in this work is painted tragically. This is a brave, proud person, deeply suffering for his homeland, denying the obedience and humility of the people and the royal order. Regarding the chronotope, it is interesting to note that the poem presents images of the present tense ("here" and "now") - Farewell, unwashed Russia... and future: - Perhaps behind the wall of the Caucasus I will hide from your pashas ... The image of space as visible and imaginary, large-scale and remote (wall of the Caucasus) actualized in the reflections of the lyrical hero. In general, the figurative structure of the poem is aimed at expressing his idea.

I. idea works can be defined as an active rejection and condemnation of the autocracy and the social passivity of the people. High civic pathos distinguishes this poem, which was perceived as a challenge to feudal Russia.

1. Artistic features poems are determined by its ideological and thematic originality and high civic pathos. Partially, they have already been discussed in connection with the characteristic rhetoric poetic text. All figurative and expressive means are aimed at creating a revealing tone, being focused on key images. Techniques of rhetorical appeal and contrast at the beginning of a poem (Farewell, unwashed Russia, Country of slaves, / country of masters) determine the subsequent artistic development of the text. The contrast is enhanced by contrasting images people and royal gendarmes due to synecdoche, periphrase and expressive epithet:

And you, blue uniforms, And you, the people devoted to them.

Use of metaphors (wall of the Caucasus, unwashed Russia), hyperbole in the formation of a generalizing image of autocratic despotism, total surveillance and eavesdropping (From their all-seeing eye / From their all-hearing ears) is very expressive and pragmatically effective.

Thus, the system of vivid artistic means and techniques forms the figurative structure of the work, expressing its ideological content.

The poem is typical for the late lyrics of M.Yu. Lermontov and reflects his individual author's stylistic features: romantic pathos combined with historically specific realistic authenticity in describing the social realities of the 40s of the XIX century, open social protest and rejection of the autocratic system; increased expression and a variety of visual and expressive means.

Let's summarize:

Literary analysis is the third stage of the philological analysis of a literary text.

The object of literary analysis is mainly content artwork,

Immanent analysis of a literary work must be supplemented projection, taking into account the cultural and historical context of the era. Literary analysis includes the study of the time and circumstances of writing a work; his place in the writer's work; definition of the literary type of the work and genre; the main issue; Topics; compositions; pathos of the work and emotional tone; figurative system; ideas and artistic features.

Literary analysis complements and deepens the understanding of the content of a literary text and the creative personality of the author, obtained on the basis of linguistic and stylistic analysis of the text.