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+ - Mid-life crisis. Maturity. Old age [unavailable]
A fully formed, mature person, often already having a family and a profession, having managed to do something in his life, suddenly finds himself in doubt: “Who am I?”, “Is this how I live?”, “What is my real purpose in life? ". Researchers argue that the crisis of adulthood matures imperceptibly, but proceeds for a long time. Several causes of the crisis are named, and the hierarchy of causes is different for different authors. In general, there are three main trends in explaining the causes of the crisis. The first trend explains the reason for the crisis phenomena in the decrease of physical strength in a person in the second half of the thirties. Against the background of still good health, a person leading a busy life suddenly shows the first signs that he is not omnipotent, that the body has its own “margin of safety”, the first signs of physical fatigue and malaise appear. So, G. Sheehy writes: “The loss of youth, the fading of physical strength, the change in familiar roles - any of these moments can give the transition the character of a crisis. The age between thirty-five and forty-five is a time of danger and great opportunity."
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+ - The main provisions of Orthodox anthropology in the course of developmental psychology [unavailable]
Orthodox anthropology is based on the doctrine of the image of God in man. Every person bears in his personality the image and likeness of God. The image of God is given to man from the very beginning; it is the ontological foundation of the existence of a person's personality, his life and creativity. The entire pedagogy of Orthodoxy is built on the doctrine of the image of God in man. As the outstanding Orthodox thinker, theologian and teacher Archpriest Vasily Zenkovsky said, “this is boundless faith in a person, this feeling that nothing can completely cross out the image of God in a person, this is a firm confession that no one will ever waste the treasure that he concluded the Lord into our souls." And if the image of God is given to the human person, then godlikeness is given, achieving it is the main meaning of the life of an Orthodox believer. The freedom of moral self-determination of a person is the most important condition for a person's aspiration to God, the achievement of the ideal that was originally laid down in a person - god-likeness. Thanks to God-given freedom, man is not completely subject to the law of necessity.
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+ - Theories of mental development [unavailable]
The main theories of mental development received their formalization in the psychology of the twentieth century, which is directly related to the methodological crisis of psychology at the beginning of that century. The search for objective research methods has exposed the problem of the ultimate goal of psychological research. Scientific discussions have revealed a difference in the understanding of mental development, as well as the laws and conditions of its course. The difference in approaches gave rise to the construction of different concepts about the role of biological and social factors, about the importance of heredity and environment in the development of the individual. At the same time, the formation of various scientific schools in developmental psychology contributed to the further accumulation and systematization of empirical data on human development in different periods of life. The construction of theories of mental development made it possible to explain the features of behavior, to identify the mechanisms for the formation of certain mental qualities of a person. In Western psychology, the mental development of a person is traditionally considered in line with the established schools of psychoanalysis, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, genetic and humanistic psychology.

Age Pedagogy and Psychology

Introduction. Targets and goals

The proposed manual is based on lectures given to students of the pedagogical faculty of the Orthodox St. Tikhon Theological Institute by one of the authors of this book - Tatyana Vladimirovna Sklyarova, head. the department of social pedagogy, and the practical and theoretical activities of another teacher - Olga Leonidovna Yanushkevichene, the author of well-known works on pedagogy. This course is integrated, as it includes the foundations of several programs of psychological and pedagogical orientation and is built on the basic courses of Christian anthropology, developmental pedagogy, developmental psychology, Orthodox pedagogy, personality development psychology, gerontology.

To comprehend the material presented in the manual, the authors were also helped by their own children. The manual contains a number of real observations of their lives. The names of the young heroes: Sema, Sasha, Anya, Anton, Lena.

A feature of this course is the consideration from the psychological and pedagogical positions of all age stages in the life of a human person - from conception to old age and death. This circumstance is dictated by modern requirements for the training of specialists in various fields of human relations - priests, teachers, psychologists, social workers. Pedagogical and social services should employ professionals who are familiar with the peculiarities of the course of each age stage in a person's life, all the more such knowledge is needed by future priests. The consideration of personality development, traditional in pedagogy, only up to its youthful period, does not meet the requirements set by life. Each age stage in a person's life, including old age and the transition to death, has its own psychological and pedagogical characteristics.

The spiritual features of personality development, their characteristics and evaluation are not specifically considered here, since the authors proceed from the statement of St. “natural life”, in which there is always the possibility “to lay the foundation for life in the spirit” (ibid.). However, based on the main provisions of Christian anthropology, using the experience of Orthodox teachers, their own pedagogical and maternal experience, the authors formulated pedagogical tasks and methods of spiritual education that are most appropriate for each age.

The main goal of the proposed course is a description of the age-related features of personality development, taking into account the main provisions of Orthodox anthropology and modern psychology personality development.

Course objectives:

describe the psychological characteristics of a person for each age stage;

to formulate pedagogical tasks due to psychological features age;

to offer the methods of spiritual education that are most adequate to the given psychological and pedagogical characteristics, based on the main provisions of Christian anthropology.

I. Spiritual and moral characteristics of the processes of personality formation

Key provisions of Orthodox anthropology used in the manual

The main, key, provisions of Orthodox anthropology, on which the authors rely in this work, are: 1) the presence of the image of God in a person, given to him likeness to God; 2) freedom of moral self-determination of a person; 3) damage to human nature by original sin and human susceptibility to the influence of demonic forces; 4) the idea of salvation as the result of the action of God's grace and free human will.

Orthodox anthropology is based on the doctrine of the image of God in man. Every person bears in his personality the image and likeness of God. The image of God is given to man from the very beginning; it is the ontological foundation of the existence of a person's personality, his life and creativity. The entire pedagogy of Orthodoxy is built on the doctrine of the image of God in man. As the outstanding Orthodox thinker, theologian and teacher Archpriest Vasily Zenkovsky said, “this is boundless faith in a person, this feeling that nothing can completely cross out the image of God in a person, this is a firm confession that no one will ever waste the treasure that he concluded the Lord into our souls” (22:42). And if the image of God is given to the human person, then godlikeness is given, achieving it is the main meaning of the life of an Orthodox believer.

The freedom of moral self-determination of a person is the most important condition for a person's aspiration to God, the achievement of the ideal that was originally laid down in a person - god-likeness. Thanks to God-given freedom, man is not completely subject to the law of necessity. As the teacher of the Moscow Orthodox Theological Academy Archimandrite Platon (Igumnov) writes in his work, “he is the culprit of his formation, since he has freedom, it is in his power to change and direct the process of his formation and development. He himself is the cause of his condition. Using the gift of freedom, a person gives meaning to the process of his formation, preferring one or another law of existence ... "(1, 106). However, “freedom is the ability of a person to become creative within the limits of those possibilities that are determined by God” (ibid.).

The doctrine of original sin is not fundamental in the understanding of human essence in Orthodox anthropology, but it helps to understand a person in his real earthly life, in his destiny. The word "sin" (amartia) in Greek means a miss. Professor V.V. Zenkovsky in his work “Problems of Education in the Light of Christian Anthropology” writes that “sinfulness, of course, has penetrated into the whole composition of a person, into all his functions, which is why a fundamental duality has been created in a person, in his depth, good in a person is so inextricably intertwined with evil…” (22, 40). Sin (as deviation, delusion, fall) prevents a person from fulfilling the true purpose of his life. The process of overcoming sin and excluding it from personal life lays the foundation for salvation.

Under what conditions is it possible for a person to be saved? What is the role of human freedom in the arrangement of salvation? To these questions the Orthodox dogmatic theology answers as follows: salvation is possible on condition that the human will is directed towards God and the heart is freely opened to receive grace (41, 200). “The Lord says: Behold, I stand at the door and knock: if anyone hears My voice and opens the door, I will come in to him, and I will dine with him, and he with Me (Rev. 3:20). St. Macarius of Egypt (Spiritual Conversations) speaks of this: “The human will is, as it were, an essential condition: if there is no will, God Himself does nothing, although He can by His freedom.” St. John Chrysostom also teaches: “Grace, although it is grace, saves those who wish, and not those who do not want it and turn away from it, constantly fight against it and oppose it”; “God does not force anyone; if He wants, and we do not want, then our salvation is impossible, not because His will was powerless, but because He does not want to force anyone. Thus, grace is not an irresistible force acting in man. The Eastern Fathers affirm that a person can freely direct his will contrary to grace” (ibid., 201).

In order to acquire the grace-filled presence of God, a person must constantly make his own efforts. Orthodox anthropology teaches about synergy (friendly action in one direction) of Divine grace and human efforts. The need for spiritual achievement for salvation is an indispensable condition of any human life. At the same time, free human activity provides the necessary, but by no means insufficient conditions for salvation. It is the presence of God's grace that is the necessary (main) condition in the matter of salvation.

Human personality in the spheres of being

The concept of personality. The course does not contain a definition of the concept of personality. One of the main provisions in the study of moral theology is the recognition that a person cannot be explained by any external - non-personal - elements. “Personality cannot be an object of scientific study in the same fullness and volume as objects of the external world. It always remains incomprehensible in its ultimate deep essence... As the image of God, a person does not need any causal-genetic explanation. The only way to explain the personality in the complete indivisibility and indestructibility of its existential structure is to recognize the dogmatic truth about its creation by God from nothing” (1, 17). The object of scientific research can be the empirical content of a person's life.

Sklyarova Tatyana Vladimirovna

Position (administrative activity in PSTGU): Dean of the Faculty of Education, Professor
Honorary Worker of Higher Professional Education.

Name of the direction of training and (or) specialty:
1989, teacher of physics and mathematics, Astrakhan State Pedagogical Institute (1989), specialist.
1992-1995, postgraduate student, Moscow Pedagogical State University, Candidate's thesis "Traditions and state of the art Orthodox education in Russia.
2008, doctoral dissertation "Professional training of social pedagogues in confession-oriented higher educational institutions."

Academic degree: doctor of pedagogical sciences

Academic title: docent

General work experience: since 1989
Teaching experience: since 1989

Teaching disciplines: Developmental psychology, Pedagogy of higher education.

Data on advanced training and / or professional retraining: program "FSES HPE in the direction 050400 - Psychological and pedagogical education", 2011; program "Psychological and pedagogical competencies of specialists in the education system in the context of the implementation of the Federal State Educational Standards and FGT", 2013; program "Management of the activities of universities. Designing funds for evaluation funds in the system higher education", 2016.

Professional achievements -
Since 2004 - scientific editor (since 2010 included in the list of refereed journals of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Federation).
Since 2008, he has been the head of the All-Russian Olympiad for Schoolchildren on the Fundamentals of Orthodox Culture project.
Since 2009 - Member of the Expert Council of the Russian Humanitarian Foundation for the Comprehensive Study of Man, Psychology, Pedagogy, Social Problems of Medicine and Human Ecology, section "Pedagogy".
Author teaching aids in developmental psychology, developer.
Developer of undergraduate programs in pedagogical education "Religious culture, ethics, cultural, educational and volunteer activities at school" and master's programs " Orthodox theology and culture in the content of education”.

Area of scientific interests -
religious education, education, socialization; professional training of teachers for confession-oriented educational institutions; teaching psychological and pedagogical disciplines in theological schools of the Russian Orthodox Church.

"Age Pedagogy and Psychology": Publishing House "Pokrov"; Moscow; 2004

Age Pedagogy and Psychology

Introduction. Targets and goals

The proposed manual is based on lectures given to students of the pedagogical faculty of the Orthodox St. Tikhon Theological Institute by one of the authors of this book - Tatyana Vladimirovna Sklyarova, head. the department of social pedagogy, and practical and theoretical activities of another teacher - Olga Leonidovna Yanushkevichene, the author of well-known works on pedagogy 1 . This course is integrated, as it includes the foundations of several programs of psychological and pedagogical orientation and is built on the basic courses of Christian anthropology, developmental pedagogy, developmental psychology, Orthodox pedagogy, personality development psychology, gerontology.

Spiritual features of personality development, their characteristics and evaluation are not specifically considered here, since the authors proceed from the statement of St. Theophan the Recluse that "Christian life is not natural life" (34, 14) description of “natural life”, in which there is always the possibility of “laying the foundation of life in the spirit” (ibid.). However, based on the main provisions of Christian anthropology, using the experience of Orthodox teachers, their own pedagogical and maternal experience, the authors formulated pedagogical tasks and methods of spiritual education that are most appropriate for each age.

The main goal of the proposed course is a description of age-related features of personality development, taking into account the main provisions of Orthodox anthropology and modern psychology of personality development.

Course objectives:

describe the psychological characteristics of a person for each age stage;

formulate pedagogical tasks due to the psychological characteristics of age;

to offer the methods of spiritual education that are most adequate to the given psychological and pedagogical characteristics, based on the main provisions of Christian anthropology.

I. Spiritual and moral characteristics of the processes of personality formation

Key provisions of Orthodox anthropology used in the manual

The main, key, provisions of Orthodox anthropology, on which the authors rely in this work, are: 1) the presence of the image of God in man, given to him likeness to God; 2) freedom of moral self-determination of a person; 3) damage to human nature by original sin and human susceptibility to the influence of demonic forces; 4) the idea of salvation as the result of the action of God's grace and free human will.

Under what conditions is it possible for a person to be saved? What is the role of human freedom in the arrangement of salvation? Orthodox dogmatic theology answers these questions in the following way: salvation is possible under the condition that the human will is directed towards God and the heart is freely opened to receive grace (41, 200). “The Lord says: Behold, I stand at the door and knock: if anyone hears My voice and opens the door, I will come in to him, and I will dine with him, and he with Me (Rev. 3:20). St. Macarius of Egypt (Spiritual Conversations) speaks of this: “The human will is, as it were, an essential condition: if there is no will, God Himself does nothing, although He can by His freedom.” St. John Chrysostom also teaches: “Grace, although it is grace, saves those who wish, and not those who do not want it and turn away from it, constantly fight against it and oppose it”; “God does not force anyone; if He wants, and we do not want, then our salvation is impossible, not because His will was powerless, but because He does not want to force anyone. Thus, grace is not an irresistible force acting in man. The Eastern Fathers affirm that a person can freely direct his will contrary to grace” (ibid., 201).

Human personality in the spheres of being

Scientific consideration of a person's life is possible in three spheres of his being - the sphere of his natural existence, the sphere of social and cultural life and religious church life (1, 19). The field of study of psychological and pedagogical disciplines is the processes occurring in the intellectual, emotional, spiritual spheres of a person's personality, his behavior and relationships with the surrounding reality. These processes are characterized by the following definitions.

Personal development. The process inherent in the internal structure of the personality, describing the changes taking place in the personality. Personal development is understood as a process of manifestation of what was originally present in it, was given, and the emergence of a new one, something that was not in it before.

Education is the cultivation of a person, taking into account all three spheres of being of his personality. Defined as assistance in the nutrition of all the constituent aspects of the personality, education involves the impact on the bodily, mental and spiritual spheres of human existence. Creating favorable conditions for the formation of personality under the grace-filled nourishment of the Church is one of the most important tasks of Orthodox education. Education in Orthodox anthropology is understood as assistance in salvation. Archpriest Yevgeny Shestun: “Only in such a formulation does education acquire its meaning as preparation for life in, on earth” (35, 31).

Personality formation. “Formation is what opposes the law of decay, which leads to overcoming chaos and to the formation of life into a stable and integral structure” (1, 20). Defining formation as a process of becoming a person, shaping the structure of her being, we proceed from the fact that the impact on a person (from parents, teachers, society, etc.), including education, is only a part, one of the factors of this large scale process. Realizing the formation of personality as its bodily, mental and spiritual formation, Orthodox anthropology recognizes the priority of the spiritual principle as the universal reality of human life. Spirit is immaterial, therefore intangible and invisible. But it is the spirit that is the core, the system-forming component that forms a person as a whole, as a person created in the image and likeness of God.

The difference of approaches to the consideration of personality formation. In pedagogical literature, it is customary to consider the spontaneous and purposeful formation of personality. And if a lot has been written and said about purposeful formation, then spontaneous formation is often identified with the process of socialization. However, it is not. The process of socialization has its own theory (see below). Clarification of the essence of formation is necessary for the correct setting of pedagogical goals and objectives.

Any educational concept is based on a certain complex of anthropological ideas. Anthropology answers the questions: what is a person? what is its physical, mental, moral essence? what is its place in the world and the highest existential purpose?

dominating for a long time in our country, materialistic ideology has led to the development of anthropological ideas that human existence is entirely determined by biological and social factors. This allowed us to believe that the process of human formation can be completely predictable and controlled. The term "formation" has become increasingly used in the meaning of the process of purposeful influence on the personality from outside. In psychology, ideas were born of the formation of the qualities of a person's mental activity - his thinking, memory, imagination, perception. A theory of the gradual formation of mental activity was created. In pedagogy, methods for the formation of the intellectual, aesthetic, moral, patriotic and other qualities of the personality of the pupil were formalized. The collapse of the Soviet ideology also led to the refusal of the state to a monopoly in the education of its citizens. Education as a single system has disintegrated and turned into a field for experiments and various "innovations".

Democratic transformations in society have led to the fact that the educational concept based on the philosophy of humanism is currently the most common. The rejection of the hierarchy in the educational process, characteristic of the pedagogy of humanism, led to the development of "pedagogy of cooperation" with its principle of equality between the educator and the educated and the main task - self-actualization of the individual.

Self-actualization of the student's personality as the embodiment of his potential capabilities and abilities is the main problem in the educational concept of humanism. It implicitly implies that everything in a person is positive. Humanistic psychology and pedagogy recognize the original harmony of the human being, and also accept the plurality and equality of value orientations (the so-called pluralism of opinions). The educator and pupil may have different moral attitudes, but this will not interfere with their cooperation. The function of the educator is reduced to the role of an assistant (stimulator, enhancer), contributing to the disclosure and realization of the motives, needs and interests of the group and each of its members (32, 114). In this regard, the principle of tolerant attitude towards the pupil becomes fundamental 3 .

Undoubtedly, the pedagogy of cooperation is more humane in comparison with the "pedagogy of formation", it is often called just that - "the pedagogy of non-violence". A positive aspect of such a pedagogical approach is to help the pupil in the disclosure of his talents, taking into account individual characteristics and inclinations; pupils are not subjected to the formative influence of the educator for the sake of "abstract pedagogical ideas". The pedagogy of non-violence preserves a certain integrity of the personality, helping to spontaneously shape the structure of its being.

Salvation of the individual as the ultimate goal of education. Orthodox pedagogy recognizes the uniqueness of each person and the inscrutable ways of the Lord, but this does not mean that it does not know the final goals of education. Without infringing on the divine freedom of a person and reverent for the mystery of his destiny, the Orthodox teacher nevertheless makes efforts to ensure that spiritually healthy tendencies prevail in the formation of the personality of the pupil. Professing a hierarchical, and not a harmonious approach to education, Orthodox pedagogy believes that a person should not “develop” and “realize”, but be saved. And because of this, in Orthodoxy the role of the educator and teacher, his activity and responsibility for the consequences of those influences with which he addresses his pupils, grows incredibly.

It is hard to disagree with the fact that "the idea of spiritual help is seductive like no other, especially when it is expressed in lofty words" (2, 184). It is very easy in a noble impulse to imagine yourself as a kind of builder, a stonemason of human souls, shaping the future inhabitants of the Kingdom of Heaven (similar to how the builders of communism were once formed). But in such an approach, violence will manifest itself, and, like any violence, it can form irreparable consequences in the future. The secret of freedom lives in the ontological depths of each person, and another person can never be the object of violent influence, no matter how lofty goals are set. The Lord Himself did not restrict man's freedom even when His disciple, Judas, made his choice: Then Jesus said to him: What you do, do it quickly (John 13:27). Human freedom is immeasurably great and lofty, but also terrible - this is the greatest responsibility of a person before God. The Son of Man goes according to his destiny, but woe to that person by whom He betrays himself (Luke 22:22).

Secular pedagogy and psychology try to help a person bypassing the problem of good and evil. Orthodox educators and psychologists, who know about the deep spiritual life of a person, cannot afford this. Discussing the principles of helping another person, psychologist G.S. Abramova writes: “Spiritual help differs from psychological help, just as the essence of a person differs from the manifestations of his “I”. Spiritual help can be understood as helping a person to acquire conscience, freedom, responsibility, faith and love for God. To what extent is it possible under the influence of another person?.. No matter how many psychological theories there are in the world, they cannot ignore the fact of a person's spiritual work. What can cause it? What is the role of the other person in it? (2, 184-185).

The questions posed cannot be answered unequivocally, and therefore, when addressing a child, they must always be remembered in order not to overstep the boundaries of what is permitted, in order to always remember the requirement of Hippocrates - do no harm.

However, where are the boundaries, so to speak, of what is permitted for a person, where is the area of doing? This is the man himself, his striving for a high ideal. He has only one path - self-improvement, and only on this path will the world around him change, and with it the people around him. In the history of Christian holiness, there are amazing testimonies of how the personality of one person, striving for a godly life, changed the circumstances of life and the very life of many hundreds of people. Examples close to our time of the life of the holy righteous Matrona of Moscow and the Monk Seraphim of Vyritsky will help to understand how, through the efforts of one holy ascetic in an atmosphere of hostilities, despair and grief, courageous calmness, peace and hope in the Lord were created in the soul.

During the Great Patriotic War in Vyritsa, occupied by the Germans (near Leningrad, besieged by the blockade), services did not stop in the church where Father Seraphim Vyritsky served. Not only the inhabitants of Vyritsa joined the prayer of the priest - soldiers of the German army came to serve in the temple. And in this town the war seemed to be gone. Also, according to the memoirs of contemporaries, the ascetic Matronushka of Moscow helped people with spiritual advice and an example of her charitable life.

The basic principle of Orthodox education. No wonder St. Seraphim of Sarov taught: "Acquire the spirit of peace, and thousands around you will be saved." Precisely this, precisely the problem of salvation, is the goal of Orthodox pedagogy. Of course, real teachers are far from holiness, but in pedagogy there is a principle: to educate becoming by becoming. A living search for a living person, someone who stays next to you, who cares about you, who is your friend, who understands you, maybe better than yourself, rejoices in all your successes and mourns for your falls, cannot but educate . Such an attitude towards the educated, of course, is a feat, but if the teacher is not ready for such a feat, then it is better for him not to take up education, but to do something else. Let us remember the Apostle James, who called: My brethren! not many become teachers, knowing that we will be subjected to greater condemnation. For we all sin much (James 3:1-2).

In Christianity, God is personal. In the very ontological essence of the Holy Trinity lies the concept of Hypostasis. And this personal beginning is inherent in every person as the image of God. Therefore, the fundamental principle of Orthodox pedagogy is the meeting of personality with personality. If a teacher sees the image of God in every child and, realizing his weakness, turns to God with a prayer for help, then love will tell him what to do in each specific situation. The main thing to remember here is that it is not you (the teacher, the parent) who saves the child, but your own salvation depends on your attitude towards him.

Socialization is the development by a person of social norms and rules of behavior, communication and interaction with society. The essence of socialization lies in the fact that in the process of it a person is formed as a member of the society to which he belongs. The process of human socialization occurs with the help of many factors (necessary conditions for this process to occur) (42). These are microfactors - family, religious community, peer society, neighbors and all those social groups, in which a person resides directly and which affect him, and mesofactors. Mesofactors include the so-called "intermediate" factors that indirectly affect a person - the type of settlement, mass media, ethnicity. The theory of socialization, taking into account the influence of macro- and mega-factors on the process of human socialization, nevertheless notes that situations are possible when an educated person may not be fully socialized, and vice versa, well-socialized individuals are often ill-mannered.