Alexander attic supporting notes in biology. Supporting lecture notes on the discipline "Biology

The expediency of using reference notes is beyond doubt, because it is an integral part of the technology of intensifying learning based on schematic and symbolic models of educational material proposed by V.F. Shatalov.

Visualization of educational material due to the illustrative nature of OC is especially important now, when the younger generation is defined as the generation of the "moving picture". At the same time, all students experience a lack of color and graphic sensations in the lesson, and this is fraught with a decrease in the level of perception of educational material.

OK form in students such skills as the ability to focus a problem, highlight goals, prioritize, collect and organize information, memorize it, analyze, evaluate and present.

However, a serious attempt to bring to the attention of practicing teachers, complete sets of OK, adapted to modern textbooks and programs, has not been made since 1997, when the Prosveshchenie publishing house published the collection Active Forms and Methods of Teaching Biology (compiled by L.V. Rebrova and E.V. Prokhorova), which combined the OK of several groups of authors in all areas of biology.

This manual partially fills the gap, because. includes OK in the course of zoology (biology - grade 7).

It consists of 19 OCs for the main systematic groups of animals studied at school. Each abstract has a detailed annotation

Each teacher has the right to independently choose the trajectory of using notes. This may be an explanation of new material (one-time or stepwise), or it may be a generalization of the entire topic covered. For some lesson OCs, it is possible to combine them into larger modules (for example, OCs Nos. 15 - 19, i.e. Type Chordata: classes Cartilaginous and Bony Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals) with subsequent analysis of evolutionary transformations of various organ systems . The retrospective of such OK within the framework of the general module creates all the conditions for the project activities of students (in the classroom or as homework) to create the final creative OK.

Relevant and timely, the author considers the use of OK to prepare graduates for the exam. Effectively fulfilling the function of reference material, OK makes it possible not only to save time globally, but also due to the mnemonic laws by which it was created, very clearly and reliably fixes this material in memory.

Download:


Preview:

OK #1. Introduction to the subject

OK consists of four parts or blocks.

First block made in the form of a cylinder with a sweep. The central part of the cylinder is occupied by the letter AND - animals. The cylinder itself is divided into three segments, in which the scientific disciplines that study animals are located. The first segment - Ecology , explores the relationship of animals with the environment. In the abstract, it is, as it were, the basis for the entire cycle of zoological sciences, since. it is the environment that determines those morphophysiological and other characteristics of animals, which in the end will determine their various systematic positions. Second block - a group of zoological disciplines: morphology animals (studies the structure), physiology animals (studies life processes), cytology (studies the structure of cells). Third cylinder segment contains information about taxonomy animals. On the turn of the cylinder there are objects of research of scientific disciplines from segments 1 and 2.

Second block starts with the word Kinds, located on the development of the cylinder, its main part is concentrated in the arrow or around it. This block looks at animal taxonomy in more detail:

  1. basic and intermediate(over-/under-) taxa;
  2. current state of taxonomy ( 23 types of invertebrates+ 1 type Chordates, studied as part of the school curriculum - 11 ) ;
  3. scientists who laid the foundations of taxonomy as a science (Carl Linnaeus and A. V. Ivanov);

Third block is located under the arrow in a stylized leaflet, but it is advisable to start examining this block also from a cylinder scan: from the cellular structure. It contains information about the similarities and main differences between animal organisms and plants. However, the information is encrypted in(+) and (-) and involves independent work of students.

Fourth block is above the cylinder and begins with the word ZOO (Zoology). The block is dedicated to the importance of animals and the protection of the animal world.

As can be seen from the structure of the OK - no block is strictly isolated, they are all interconnected. This has a great biological meaning: animals cannot be considered on their own, in isolation from the environment; structure depends on the systematic position.

Preview:

OK #2. Protozoa

The Protozoa include animals consisting of one or more cells. In them, each cell is an independent organism, even if they are united in a colony (The simplest But! not class 1)

Currently known about 70 thousand species, combined into 7 types.

The school curriculum covers:

  1. sarcoflagellate type (Roots + flagella);
  2. type of infusoria;
  3. spore type.

Root legs include various amoeba, as well as radiolarians and sunflowers. The structure is considered by exampleamoeba vulgaris(pseudopods, digestive food and juice rative vacuole, undigested food residues are excreted everywhere ).

Flagellates are considered by example euglena green , which is often referred to not as and animals, but to plant flagellates because of the ability to photosynthesis. Also studied colonial forms by example volvox.

Type of Infusoria representedciliate shoe. The attention of students is drawn to the features of its structure (including the presence cell mouth and cell pharynx, powder, large core and small core, as well as numerous cilia).

Meaning of Protozoa:sedimentary rock formation(chalk, limestone); are the causative agents of various diseases.

The graphic construction of the abstract is determined by the studied types of animals + a block according to the value of the Protozoa.

Preview:

OK #3. Type Intestinal

The coelenterates are multicellular animals that havebeam symmetry.In OK, the central place is occupied by a stylized image of a freshwater hydra, which is a typical representative of the coelenterates. These animals got their name because they have a digestive ( intestinal) cavity where food is digested. The hydra's body is made up of two layers cells, between which there is a gelatinous non-cellular substance. The outer layer contains the musculocutaneous KM, nervous H, stinging SC and sex (gametes) cells; the inner layer consists of their digestive ( Pishch) cells. Hydra has the property regeneration (restoration of lost parts); it is able to perceive irritation from the environment, transmit excitations from this irritation through nerve cells and respond to it with the help of muscle cells with a certain action ( reflex ). Reproduces asexually(budding) and sexual (sperm ♂ fuses with egg ♀).

The second block is OK, separated from the central part by a horizontal stripe. Here the variety of type is considered on the example jellyfish, sea ​​anemones and corals. "Ear" jellyfish contains information about its ability to predict the approaching storm ( tsunami ). Sea anemones are interestingsymbiosis with hermit crab, and corals with their ability to form reefs and entire islands atolls.

Preview:

OK #4. Type Flatworms

Preview:

OK No. 5 Type Roundworms.

Nematodes, like the whole type of roundworms, are characterized by the following common features (see arrows from Nematodes).

  1. Presence of primary body cavity . Its main function is transport. Nutrients and metabolic products are transported faster through the body cavity than through the parenchyma, which accelerates metabolism.
  2. Body shape is round in diameter, which is reflected in the name of the type.
  3. Covers usually have cuticle.
  4. Musculature is represented only by a layer longitudinal muscles or individual muscle bundles in small forms.
  5. Digestive system begins mouth oval hole. The intestine has three sections. There is an anal hole.
  6. Most species dioecious.

Preview:

OK #6. Type Annelids

OK has three parts: on the silhouette earthworm and around it there is information about the external structure, size and importance in soil formation of earthworms.

The second block tells about the internal structure of the rings:

  1. Metameric structure;
  2. Skin-muscular sac KMM
  3. Presence of coelom . The internal environment of the body(WSO) has constancy(const) and provides the transport of substances, the reference function, it formssex products.
  4. Graphic representation of the digestive system. BJU - nutrients enter the blood, which moves through the vessels. Circulatory system - closed.
  5. The decay product is uric acid which saves water
  6. Nervous system (NS) represented by the abdominal nerve chain, sensory organs are considered(OC)
  7. Most rings- hermaphrodites
  8. Earthworms are characterized by a high degree regeneration

Third block OK contains information about the taxonomy of annelids:polychaete, low-bristle and leeches,as well as their meaning.

Preview:

OK #7. Type Shellfish

Shellfish - soft-bodied animals, the structural feature of which is the presence shells, performing a protective function. Shell material is secreted by cells robes formed by the dorsal fold of the skin.

Mollusks have a muscular body, on which they distinguish head (not for bivalves), torso and leg.

The organs of mollusks are combined into systems: digestive food (radula or a grater - a muscular tongue with chitinous teeth), respiratory, blood external (open, three-chambered heart - 1 ventricle, 2 atria), nervous (varies in degree of complexity, like the sense organs).

The OK also contains information on the main classes of molluscs:chitons, gastropods, cephalopods, bivalves.

Preview:

OK No. 8 Type Arthropods. Class Crustacea

The OK displays material on the general characteristics of the phylum Arthropoda and in detail on the habitat, external and internal structure of crayfish, the diversity and importance of crustaceans in nature.

The body of crayfish is divided into two sections: massive cephalothorax and articulated abdomen ; on the cephalothorax are the organs of touch, smell, vision, mouth organs andfive pairs of walking legs(including pincers ); on the abdomen there are swimming legs and a caudal fin.

The internal structure of cancerhas a number of features:

  1. the stomach is divided into two parts and digestion of nutrients takes place in food for the digestive gland;
  2. circulatory system is open;
  3. breathes cancer through the gills;
  4. excretory system is represented by a pair green glands;
  5. the nervous system is presented, as in the rings, ventral nerve cord, sense organs : long antennae - organs of touch, short antennae - organs of smell, organs of vision - complex mosaic eyes;
  6. reproduces by spawning.

In the block on the diversity and importance of crustaceans in nature, the teacher is given the right to choose the material and place the main accents.

Preview:

OK #9. Type Arthropods. Class Arachnids

OK contains information about the structure and lifestyle of arachnids using the example of a spider-cross: the body of a spider is divided into cephalothorax (there are 4 pairs of simple eyes, oral organs with excretory ducts of poisonous glands,four pairs of walking legs) And abdomen with spider wartsinto which the arachnoid glands open). Spider builds trapping net with which it obtains food.Digestion external. Breathe in atmospheric airlung sacs and trachea.Nervous system(NS) nodal type. Observed sexual dimorphismfemales are much larger and more aggressive than males. Eggs are laid in cocoon.

Preview:

OK #10. Type Arthropods. Class Insects

OK introduces the features of the external and internal structure of insects.most numerousclass of animals found everywhere. Surname of a French scientist Jean Henri Fabre allows the teacher to draw students' attention to the formation of entomology as a science.

The external structure of insects:

  1. body is clearly divided intohead, chest and abdomen;
  2. on the head - sensory organs:compound eyes, mustache, on the lower lip - palps and complex oral apparatus (upper lip, upper and lower jaws, lower lip);
  3. on the chest - 3 pairs of legs ; folds of chitinous cover in flying insects form wings (two pairs - may be different)
  4. on jointed abdomen spiracles are located leading to the trachea; the last segment may have a stinger, ovipositor, or windpipe(3).

The internal structure of insects:

  1. structure oral apparatusdetermined by the type of food;
  2. circulatory system open; the main function of the blood (hemolymph) is the transport of substances(BJU),
  3. breathing - through the trachea;
  4. poisonous decay products are collected in malpighian vessels(MS) and then enter the intestine or are deposited in fat body (it may also store a supply of nutrients);
  5. nervous system (NS) and sense organs (OC) reach a high development for invertebrates.

Reproduction and development:Dioecious (♀♂). Development can be indirect (with metamorphosis) - Chafer and direct (without metamorphosis) locust.

Preview:

OK #11. Systematics of insects (orders: Beetles - Coleoptera, Diptera, Butterflies - Lepidoptera)

OK consists of 3 blocks, each contains information about the corresponding detachment.

The taxonomy of insects is based on various signs - the attention of students is focused on the type of oral apparatus ( RA ), the number and types of wings, as well as the type of development. K - wings; NadK - elytra; J - ground beetle.

For each detachment, examples of the most important representatives are given. Their number can be increased and supplemented at the discretion of the teacher.

With regard to the order of Butterflies, attention is drawn to the silkworm and the history of its domestication.

Preview:

OK #12. social insects

OK talks about social insects of the order Hymenoptera.

Let's take a closer look at bee honey. We consider the device"families", the structure and "professions" of the worker bee, bee products. Surname is given in OKPeter Ivanovich Prokopovich(1775 - 1850), famous Russian beekeeper, inventor of the frame hive (1814).

The phrase "Um? Instinct!" The teacher, with the help of OK, poses a problem to the students, which they have to solve in the form of homework or in the lesson.

The lower block contains information about other Hymenoptera, the emphasis is shifted towards information about ants , the structure of their anthill (the above-ground area is less than the area of ​​the underground part).Marikovsky Pavel Iustinovich- a famous Russian entomologist who studied ants. With regard to other Hymenoptera, the OC gives the teacher the initiative in their study, however, it is necessary to draw students' attention toBSB - a biological way of fightingwith pests Agriculture with the involvement of insects of this order (riders).

Preview:

OK #13. Type Echinoderm

To the type of echinoderms, numbering more 6500 species aresea ​​stars, sea ​​urchins, brittle stars (serpentines), sea lilies and sea cucumbers (sea cucumbers).

Body of echinoderms, length from 5 mm to 5 m, has radial (radial)symmetry, calcareous skeleton. All echinoderms havewater vascular system, through which:movement, transport of substances, breath .

Usually separate sexes often development with transformation. They have a high ability to regeneration.

A separate block in OK contains information about the meaning of echinoderms (starfish crown of thorns , eating corals, poses a serious danger to the Great Barrier Reef; related to holothurians trepangs are considered edible even as a delicacy).

OK 13

Preview:

OK #14. Type Chordates

The chordate type includes animals with an internal skeleton, which is represented by a strong axial rod- chord.

Higher chordates -fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammalsin OK are arranged as they become more complex.

Examined in detail lancelet belonging to the lower chordates. Listed itsize, habitat and lifestyle.

In the structure of the lancelet, there are already characteristic features for all chordates:

  1. musculature in the form of longitudinal muscle bands located one on the right and left on the sides of the body;
  2. mouth tentaclesform a lattice that prevents large particles from entering the pharyngeal cavity; behind the pharynx follows the intestines;
  3. breathing oxygen, dissolved in water with the help of gills, to which water enters throughgill slits (over 100);
  4. closed circulatory system; no heart, two large blood vessels (dorsal and abdominal);
  5. excretory system - protonephridia;
  6. nervous system (NS) in the form of a neural tube, the brain is not differentiated, the sense organs are very poorly developed.

A. O. Kovalevsky(1840 - 1901) Russian biologist, studies of the embryonic development of lower vertebrates (lancelet) and invertebrates showed the commonality of the patterns of development of all animals.

OK 14

Preview:

OK No. 15 Superclass Pisces

Superclass Pisces appeared 400 million years ago and includes 20 thousand species ; consists of 2 classes:cartilage and bonefish. Cartilaginous fish are sharks, rays, chimeras . The class of bony fish accounts for 96% the entire species diversity.

The external structure of fish.

Most fish have a streamlined body that is coveredscales and mucus. Fins 2 types:

  1. paired (thoracic, abdominal) and
  1. unpaired (dorsal, caudal, anal).

Coloring: the back is darker, the belly is light.

The internal structure of fish.

The skeleton is represented numerical bones. musclesZ-shaped, torso.

Breathing with gills (2 pairs, 4 full arcs and 1 a row of rudimentary petals - a filter apparatus). Gas exchange by movement of the gill covers.

The circulatory system is closed, consists of a 2-chambered heart (atrium and ventricle)and vessels. In the heart - venous blood.

Digestive systemhas a standard building plan with minor variations. well developed liver. Most bony fish are characterizedswim bladder.

excretory systemrepresented by longribbon buds.

Nervous system and sense organs.The brain is made up of five departments: anterior, intermediate, middle, oblong and cerebellum. In the behavior of fish, unconditional and conditional reflexes. The sense organs are traditional 5: taste (taste buds are located not only in the oral cavity, but also in many parts of the body), sight (eyes), touch (nerve endings on the skin and fins), sense of smell (olfactory bulbs) hearing (only the inner ear located in the skull). The characteristic organ for fish is the lateral line, which perceives water vibrations (6th sense).

Reproduction and development of fish.Separate animals. Spawning - spawning by fish of reproductive products - mature caviar and milk, followed by fertilization. The amount of caviar is determined by the care of offspring (many caviar - lack of care, for example cod ; little caviar, likethree-spined stickleback- construction of a nest by the male with subsequent care for both eggs and fry).

Preview:

OK #16. Type Chordates. Class Amphibians

The class of amphibians, or amphibians, includes animals adapted to life both on land and in water. Appeared 350 million years ago from ancient lobe-finned fish.

The silhouette of a frog is compositionally the block where the main information about the external and internal structure is located:

  1. on the head are a pair of nostrils for breathing atmospheric air, a pair of eyes protected by eyelids. In addition to the inner ear, amphibians have a developed middle ear, delimited from the environment by the tympanic membrane;
  2. compared to fish, amphibians progressively develop a tongue, and, having their own muscles, take part in capturing food;
  3. respiratory organs - lungs and skin;
  4. two circles of blood circulation: large and small (pulmonary);
  5. three-chambered heart (two atria, one ventricle). Since arterial blood is mixed with venous blood in the ventricle, amphibians are cold-blooded (poikilothermic) animals;
  6. the nervous system is characterized by a large development of the anterior part of the brain (it is completely divided into two hemispheres, the number of nerve cells increases, but gray matter is still only in the deep layers of the roof and is absent on its surface;
  7. amphibious dioecious animals, development occurs with metamorphosis (in anurans, the larva is a tadpole);
  8. the organs of locomotion are the fore and hind limbs of the five-fingered type.

The taxonomy of amphibians in the OK is presented in the form of a crossword puzzle (5 - anurans, 4 - tailed).

The main reasons for the decline in the number of amphibians are the drainage of swamps and pollution of the habitat.

Preview:

OK #17. Type Chordates. Class Reptiles (Reptiles)

The reptile class is considered on the example of a quick lizard.

  1. Unlike amphibians, in reptiles there is a complication in the skeleton (a more mobile neck - 8 vertebrae, the chest is already formed by real ribs).
  2. The skin helps to save moisture (horny scales - protection against water loss).
  3. The lungs are more differentiated (have a cellular structure). The mechanism of inhalation and exhalation is associated with a change in the volume of the chest.
  4. A three-chambered heart, however, the ventricle is divided into two halves by an incomplete septum (crocodilians have a 4-chambered heart). However, there is no complete separation of arterial and venous blood, so reptiles are also poikilothermic animals.
  5. Internal fertilization, the development of the embryo, occurs in the egg, which is an important adaptation for further distancing from water.

OK ends with the taxonomy of reptiles.

Preview:

OK #18. Type Chordates. Bird class.

OK consists of two blocks: First block : in the silhouette of a bird - structural features and fitness for flight; second block - seasonal phenomena in the life of birds.

The streamlined shape of the body, feather cover, the skeleton is lightweight, but strong, "special" bones (fork, keel). Instead of heavy jaws with teeth - a light horny beak. Digestion is fast, the stomach is two-chamber, in the muscular section there are pebbles. The product of excretion is uric acid. Double respiration due to air sacs. Four-chambered heart, constant body temperature (homeothermic). In the brain, the cerebellum, visual tubercles of the midbrain, and the forebrain are highly developed. When breeding, birds lay eggs gradually, in small numbers.

Preview:

OK #19. Type Chordates. Class Mammals.

mammals - the most highly organized vertebrates that inhabited all environments a habitat. The species composition is more than 4 thousand species. The most ancient and primitive are first beasts (single pass) and marsupials. Placental differ more high organization, including in embryonic development and care for offspringplacenta, uterus, milk).

The appearance and size are varied, but there are common features of the structure:

  1. hairline ( awn - protection, undercoat- thermoregulation, vibrissa - organs of touch); change - molt;
  2. skin contains various gland, subcutaneous muscles;
  3. on the head - auricles, eyes with eyelashes, lips;
  4. teeth are different incisors, canines, molars);
  5. spine consists of departments (cervical - 7 vertebrae, chest 12 - 15, lumbar - 2 - 9, sacrum - 4 fused, tail - the number of vertebrae is different);
  6. cellular structure of the lungs, breathing not only due to the work of the ribs, but also due to diaphragms;
  7. four-chambered heart;
  8. high developmentbrain (cerebral cortex, furrows, convolutions - an increase in area S)defines complex behavior.

It is advisable to draw the attention of students to the problem of animal protection (Red Book, green pages - restored numbers, such as bison, black pages - extinct animals, such as Steller's cow).


Reference notes for the block of lessons "Cells and tissues".

Chapter

BlockII

Lesson topic

Reference abstract

1. The structure of living organisms

Organs and organ systems. The body is one.

11 o'clock.

1. Organs of flowering plants. Types of roots, their modifications. Laboratory work "Types of Root Systems".

2. Microscopic structure of the root. Laboratory work Root structure. Root hairs and sheath.

3. Stem - axial organ. Stem types. Laboratory work"Layers and cells of a transverse section of a stem".

4. Sheet. Laboratory work"External and internal structure of the leaf". Sheet modifications.

5. Plant buds. Laboratory work"The structure of the kidneys".

6. Types of plant shoots. Escape modifications. Laboratory work"The structure of the tuber and bulb".

7. Flower. Laboratory work"The structure of a flower". inflorescences.

8. Laboratory work"The structure of the seeds of monocots and dicot plants».

9. Laboratory work"Types and Species of Fruit". Fruit classification.

10. Organs and systems of animal organs.

11. Control. Three-level thematic testing for the block of lessons No. 2.

No. 5. Organ level.

Reference abstract for the block of lessons "Organs and organ systems".

Chapter

BlockI

Lesson topic

Reference abstract

2. Life activity of organisms

Nutrition and respiration of plants and animals.

2 hours.

1. Root and air nutrition of plants. Plant respiration.

2. Nutrition and digestion of animals. Animal breath.

No. 6 "PZHO. Nutrition”, No. 7 “PZhO. Breath".

BlockII

Transport of substances in organisms and removal of decay products.

3 hours.

1. Transport of substances in the plant and removal of decay products.

2. Transport of animal substances and removal of decay products.

3. Metabolism and energy of plants and animals.

Control: according to the minitest options for blocks No. 1, No. 2.

No. 8 “PZHO. Transport of substances.

No. 9 “PZHO. Selection".

No. 10. "PJO. Metabolism and Energy.

BlockIII

Musculoskeletal system. coordination and regulation.

3 hours.

1. Skeletal formations in plants and animals.

2. Features of the structure of the organs of locomotion. Devices.

3. Nervous and endocrine system of animals. Coordination and regulation of living organisms.

No. 11 " O-D system. Skeleton".

No. 12 "Movement".

No. 13 "Coordination and regulation".

BlockIV

reproduction of organisms. Growth and development.

5 o'clock.

1. Asexual and sexual reproduction plants and fungi. Practical work Plant cuttings, vegetative propagation. (Independently at home according to the instruction card).

2. Asexual and sexual reproduction of animals.

3. Growth and development of plants. Practical work"The Germination of Plant Seeds". (Independently at home according to the instruction card).

4. Growth and development of animals.

5. Control. Three-level thematic testing in blocks No. 3, No. 4.

No. 14 "Reproduction".

No. 15 "OSR. Growth and development of plants.

No. 16 "OSR. Growth and development of animals.

Supporting abstracts for the section "Life activity of organisms".

BlockI

Lesson topic

Reference abstract

3. Organism and environment.

Environmental factors and natural communities.

2 hours.

1. Habitat and environmental factors. natural communities. Excursion.

2. Lesson-generalization (game) "Living organism". Lesson through extracurricular activities (1 hour).

No. 17 " Environmental factors. natural communities.

Note: in addition to control over blocks of lessons, current control is carried out in various forms and methods at the discretion of the teacher and in relation to the status of the class. Diagnosis is necessarily carried out on the use of the reference abstract. Methods: questionnaire, interview, control, etc. A lesson flow chart is attached to the planning

Kurt Helbig wurde am 28. June 1901 in Rödlitz geboren. Er war ein deutscher Gewichtheber und Olympiasieger 1928 im Leichtgewicht. Kurt Helbig wuchs in Plauen im Vogtland auf. Er steigerte seine Leistungen so enorm, dass er 1928 bei den Olympischen Sommerspielen in Amsterdam Olympiasieger wurde. Nach seiner Rückkehr wurde sein Olympiasieg in Plauen enthusiastisch gefeiert und er erhielt vom Stadtrat ein Geschenk von 100 Reichsmark überreicht. Obwohl er die Olympia-Ausscheidung gewonnen hatte und erneut ein Medaillenkandidat bei den Olympischen Spielen 1932 in Los Angeles war, wurde er nicht entsandt, weil kein Geld für die Reisekosten vorhanden war. Verärgert beendete er daraufhin seine Laufbahn. Nach ihm wurde die Kurt-Helbig-Halle und der Kurt-Helbig-Platz in Plauen benannt. Nach seinem Tod 1975 wurde er auf dem Friedhof I in Plauen beigesetzt. Sein Grab steht heute unter Denkmalschutz.

Kurt Helbig was born on June 28, 1901 in Rödlitz. He was a German weightlifter and 1928 Olympic lightweight champion. Kurt Helbig grew up in Plauen in the Vogtland. His success was so great that in 1928 he became the Olympic champion at the Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. After his return, his Olympic victory was enthusiastically celebrated in Plauen and he received a gift of 100 marks from the city council. Although he won a ticket to the next Olympics and was again a medal candidate at the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics, he was not sent there because there was no money for travel expenses. Annoyed he ended his career then. Later, the Kurt-Helbig-Halle and the Kurt-Helbig-Platz in Plauen were named after him. After his death in 1975, he was buried in the cemetery in Plauen. Now his grave is a protected monument.

Steffi Nerius wurde am 1. Juli 1972 in Bergen auf Rügen geboren. Sie ist eine ehemalige deutsche Leichtathletin und derzeitig Trainerin. Sie war 2009 Weltmeisterin im Speerwurf.

Steffi Nerius begann als Volleyballerin . Den Speerwurf hatte ihr die Mutter beigebracht.

1991 Gelang ihr der erste internationale Erfolg als Dritte der Junioreneuropameisterschaften.

Danach folgten Jahre der Stagnation, Verletzungen und Einbrüche bei internationalen Höhepunkten. Der Durchbruch zur Weltspitze gelang ihr bei den Olympischen Spielen 2000 in Sydney, wo sie Vierte wurde.

Nachdem sie seit den Europameisterschaften 2002 in München bei Großereignissen immer auf dem Podest stand, erfüllte sie sich am 13. August 2006 in Göteborg ihren langjährigen Traum und feierte mit dem Sieg bei den Europameisterschaften ihren ersten groß en Titel. Bei den Weltmeisterschaften 2009 in Berlin holte sie zum Abschluss ihrer Karriere die Goldmedaille.

Steffi Nerius ist Diplom-Sportlehrerin und arbeitet beim TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen im Behindertensport. 2004 betreute sie zwei Sportler bei den Paralympics in Athens. Auch 2016 war sie als Trainerin bei den Paralympics in Rio dabei.

Steffi Nerius was born on July 1, 1972 in Bergen an der Rügen. She is a former German track and field athlete and currently a coach. She was the 2009 world champion in the javelin throw.

Steffi Nerius started with volleyball. Her mother led her into javelin throwing.

In 1991, she had her first international success, finishing third at the European Junior Championships.

This was followed by years of stagnation in the international arena and injuries. Her breakthrough to the pinnacle of world success came at the 2000 Sydney Olympics, where she placed fourth.

After standing on the podium at the European Championships in Munich in 2002, Steffi fulfilled her lifelong dream and celebrated her first major title on 13 August 2006 in Gothenburg by winning the European Championship. At the 2009 World Championships in Berlin, she won the gold medal at the end of her career.

Steffi Nerius is a certified teacher and works with disabled sports at Baye Liverkusen. In 2004, she trained two athletes for the Paralympic Games in Athens. Also in 2016, she was a coach at the Paralympic Games in Rio.

Ministry of transportation Russian Federation

Federal Agency of Sea and River Transport

Pechora River School - a branch of the Federal Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher vocational education

"GUMRF named after Admiral S. O. Makarov"

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

LESSONS IN BIOLOGY

ON THE TOPIC "EVOLUTIONARY DOCTRINE"

(using the reference signal method)

Pechora

2013

CONSIDERED

Subject (cycle) commission of general technical disciplines of the Pechora River School

APPROVE

Commission Chairman

Stahiryak E.I.

"____" ________________ 2013

Deputy Director of Education

Pets E.E.

"______" ________________2013

Explanatory note.

Being a general biological science, evolutionary doctrine makes it possible to understand and comprehend as a whole all the diversity of life forms that arose in the process of evolution in wild nature and man-made. This is the most fundamental theoretical generalization of modern biology. The biological picture of the world is associated with the work of many outstanding personalities, from antiquity to the present day. The result of their work was the creation evolutionary doctrine explaining the conditions, causes and mechanisms of the historical development of life on the planet.

Ideas about the development of wildlife

Direction

and periods

Idea

Representatives

Period of ancient philosophers

The idea of ​​unity and development of living nature

Empidocles, Democritus, Hippocrates, Aristotle, etc.

Creationism - metaphysical worldview (Middle Ages)

The idea of ​​the constancy of the unknown and the original expediency of nature.

C. Linnaeus (1707 - 1778):

1. Described a large number of plant and animal species.

2. Introduced about 1000 botanical terms.

4. Proved that the species is a universal unit and the main form of existence of the living.

5. Developed the basic principles of taxonomy of plants and animals.

6. He proposed the first classification of plants and animals, which was artificial in nature, since it was based not on the main properties of organisms and their historical relationships, but on purely external features.

Transformism - materialistic view (late XVIII - XIX century)

The idea of ​​the natural origin of the world and its gradual development and renewal

J. B. Lamarck (1744 - 1829)

1. Creator of the first evolutionary concept in the work "Philosophy of Zoology" (1809)

2. Created a natural animal system based on the principle of kinship between organisms.

Gradations/classes

/ 1. Polyps; 2. Infusoria

/ 3. Radiant; 4. Worms

/ 5. Insects; 6 Arachnids

V / 7. Crustaceans; 8. Ringed;

9. Barnacles; 10. Clams

V / 11. Pisces; 12. Reptiles

V / 13. Birds; 14 Mammals;

15 people.

3. Identified the causes of evolution:

a) the internal desire of organisms for improvement;

b) the ability of organisms to respond appropriately to changes in the conditions of existence.

4. Combined the idea of ​​the variability of species with the idea of ​​progressive evolution.

5. Could not reveal the mechanisms of evolutionary progress.

The evolutionary doctrine of Ch. Darwin

C. Darwin (1809 - 1882) - the great English scientist

The development of capitalism in England, the largest industrial and colonial power.

Intensive urban growth, which required an increase in agricultural productivity.

    Advances in the taxonomy of plants and animals.

    Creation of the cell theory.

    Development of biogeography, embryology, comparative anatomy and paleontology.

    The evolutionary doctrine of Lamarck.

    Great selection work.

    Numerous scientific expeditions.

The main provisions of the evolutionary teaching Ch. Darwin.

    All kinds of living creatures that inhabit the Earth have never been created by someone.

    Having arisen in a natural way, organic forms were slowly and gradually transformed and improved in accordance with the surrounding conditions.

    The transformation of species in nature is based on such properties of organisms as heredity and variability, as well as natural selection constantly occurring in nature. Natural selection is carried out through the complex interaction of organisms with each other and with factors of inanimate nature; this relationship Darwin called the struggle for existence.

    The result of evolution is the adaptability of organisms to the conditions of their habitat and the diversity of species in nature.

Driving Forces of Evolution

Properties of the environment

Properties of living organisms


Diversity

a habitat

life resources

limited and distributed

uneven

Pursuit

multiply

in geometric

progression

Change -

Legacy-

Undefined

nnaya (indie

visual)

Define-

nnaya (group)

Relative


Intraspecific

Fight against factors of inanimate nature

Struggle for existence


Interspecies


Natural selection is the guiding factor


Manifold

Relative

fitness

organisms to the environment

a habitat

Diversity

Directions

evolution

Simultaneous

existence

primitive and highly organized

bathroom molds

MAIN RESULTS AND EVIDENCE FOR MACROEVOLUTION

The result of evolution


Variety of species

Gradual complication and increase in the organizations of living beings

Fitness

organisms

to different living conditions


Proof of macroevolution

organic world

    paleontological :

    Fossil transitional forms

    paleontological series

    relics

2 . Comparative - anatomical and morphological :

    Homologous organs - the origin and structure are common, but perform different functions;

    Similar organs - the origin and structure are different, but perform the same functions;

    Rudiments - structures that have lost their original meaning for the body;

    Atavisms - return to ancestral forms (deviation from the norm)

    Embryological :

    1. K. Baer's law of germline similarity;

b. Biogenetic law of F. Müller and E. Haeckel

4. Biogeographic evidence - study of flora and fauna of different continents (example - Australia)

MODERN CONCEPTS ABOUT EVOLUTION

Modern (synthetic) theory of evolution

Classical Darwinism + modern genetics emerged at the beginning

40s XX V.

The driving forces of evolution and according to modern concepts are:

    Struggle for existence;

    Natural selection based on hereditary variability.

Contribute to the evolutionary process: elementary evolutionary factors.

The main provisions of the modern theory of evolution

    The unit of evolution is the population;

    Mutations provide elementary evolutionary material;

    Elementary evolutionary factors contribute to evolution: population waves, gene flow and drift, isolation;

    The main driving factor in evolution is natural selection, since only it selects from undirected hereditary changes those that better adapt organisms to specific conditions of existence.

Species

View- this is the main structural unit living nature. This is a collection of individuals that are similar in morphophysiological properties, have a common origin, occupy a certain area, freely interbreed and give fertile offspring.

View criteria

    Morphological;

    Genetic;

    Physiological;

    Biochemical;

    Geographical;

    Ecological.

Separately, they are relative.


The form of existence of a species

in specific environmental conditions

Characterized

    Density;

    number

    gender composition;

    Age composition

    genetic

polymorphism


Population - This is a collection of individuals of the same species that exist for a long time in a certain territory and are relatively isolated from other individuals of the same species.

This is the elementary unit of evolution.


Elementary evolutionary factors

Guiding the evolutionary process

Guides

evolutionary process


Natural selection

(against the background of the struggle for existence)

insulation

Waves of life

Flow and drift of genes

Legacy-

given variability


Geographic


Ecological

biological

Act in a population by changing its gene pool


A possible result is the emergence of new populations, exploits, and species.


Speciation

(as a result of microevolution)


Adaptations are the result of evolution

Adaptations, or fixtures - these are features of the structure, functioning, and behavior of organisms to environmental conditions fixed in the course of evolution.

Each adaptation and the whole complex of them are developed on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of struggle for existence and selection in a number of generations. The fitness of organisms is the result of the action of the driving forces of evolution in the given conditions of existence.

Morphological


Physiological


Organisms


Biochemical

Species


Environmental (behavioral)


Adaptations are relative. This means that when changing

Conditions of useful signs can be useless or even harmful.

Fitness of organisms

body shape:

    torpedo-shaped

    knotty,

foliate

    bizarre

Helps to avoid the formation of turbulence in water flows during movement.

Makes the body invisible among certain objects of the environment

Hides among algae, coral polyps.

dolphins

Stick insects, moth caterpillars

Sea Horses,

anglers

Body coloration:

    patronizing

    Dismembering

    Cautionary

Hides against the background of the environment

The same against the background of stripes of light

Preservation of the number of species with poisonous, burning, stinging properties.

Hare - hare, white partridge, green grasshopper.

Zebras, tigers

Bees, wasps, bugs, caterpillars of cabbage butterflies.

eggs laid by the cuckoo.

Needles, spines, crystals of potassium oxalate, accumulating in thorns or leaves of plants

Passive protection against being eaten by herbivores

Cacti, wild rose, hawthorn, nettle.

hard integuments of the body

Passive protection from being eaten by carnivores

Beetles, crabs, bivalves, turtles, armadillos.

Needles

Passive Defense

Echidnas, porcupines, hedgehogs.

Adaptive Behavior:

    Fading

    Threatening posture

    Food storage

Experiencing a period of lack or lack of food

Opossums, some beetles, amphibians, birds.

Bearded lizard, round-eared.

Nutcracker, jay, chipmunk, squirrel, pika.

Caring for offspring:

    Carrying eggs in the oral cavity, in a fold of skin on the abdomen

    Nest building and breeding

    Feeding offspring

    Providing future offspring with food

Preservation of offspring

Male tilapia, sea catfish galenhta, seahorse.

Some fish (stickleback, betta, macropods), birds, squirrels, baby mice.

Birds, mammals.

Beetles - scarabs, riders, egg-eaters.

Physiological adaptations:

    Removal of excess water through the kidneys in the form of weakly concentrated urine

Preservation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body in the conditions of life in fresh water

Preservation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body in the conditions of life in the marine environment

Freshwater fish and amphibians.

Sea fish.

Speciation

Speciation - it is the process of the emergence of one or more new species on the basis of a pre-existing one.

Speciation methods

allopatric, sympatric

or geographic

Provided the geographical view is born within

isolated genetic maternal population

isolation with the appearance

biological isolation

Microevolution and macroevolution

Diagram of microevolution

Variability

(mutations, their combinations, modifications)


population

(genetic-ecological

factors)

Gene drift


gene flow


population waves


The struggle for existence


Natural selection


The emergence and improvement of devices

Speciation


Insulation

Forms of implementation of macroevolution

Divergent evolution -

divergence of signs of organisms during the evolution of different lines that arose from a common ancestor.

Occurs as a result of disruptive selection, as well as isolation of populations.

With the divergence of characters by selection, extreme forms are predominantly preserved. Organs that correspond to each other in structure and have a common origin, regardless of the function they perform, are called homologous.

Differences in the structure of the beaks of the crossbill - spruce and crossbill - pine .

Convergent - the result of the adaptation of organisms to the initial conditions of life, the convergence of features in organisms of different systematic groups in the process of evolution.

The convergence of signs affects mainly only those organs that are directly related to similar environmental conditions.

Organs that perform similar functions, but have a fundamentally different structure and origin, are called similar

The external similarity of the European mole and marsupial mole, marsupial flyer and flying squirrel; similar organs: the wings of butterflies and bats, the gills of fish and crayfish, the burrowing limbs of the mole and the bear, the flat body shape of the rays and flounder, the spines of the cactus and hawthorn.

Parallel

(a form of convergent development of organisms) parallel formation of similar adaptive traits in related previously divergent groups.

In the evolution of closely related groups of organisms, independent development of similar traits occurs.

In cetaceans and pinnipeds, independently of each other, the forelimbs turned into flippers as an adaptation to the aquatic lifestyle. Different groups of lobe-finned fish developed signs of amphibians. The traits of angiosperms developed independently and in parallel in different lines of evolution of their ancestors.

Finite evolution -

evolutionary adaptation of one systematic group.

The emergence of a new systematic group, different from the original.

Phylogenetic series of horse ancestors:

phenocadis eogypussus

myohippus parahippus

pliogippus equus.

Ways to achieve biological progress

cal process, or arogenesis (exit to a new adaptive zone)

Accompanied by the acquisition of major changes in the structure (aromorphosis), significantly increasing the level of organization of organisms.

Arising aroma-

phose are not

adaptive to any special environmental conditions, are of a general nature and make it possible to expand the use of environmental conditions, to develop new habitats.

The appearance of jaws in vertebrates, the appearance of the skeleton as a place of attachment of muscles, the replacement of smooth muscles in worms by bundles of striated muscles in arthropods.

allogenesis (within one adaptive zone)

Accompanied by the acquisition of private adaptations to environmental conditions, to certain habitats (idioadaptation) without changing the level of organization.

The resulting changes are adaptive in nature. The extreme degree of adaptation to specific, limited conditions of existence is called specialization (transition to eating only one type of food, living in a homogeneous environment, and ...) With a rapid change in environmental conditions, organisms with a narrow specialization die out. Small systematic groups (species, genera, families) usually arise through idioadaptations.

patronage-

the coloration of animals, the flat shape of the body of stingrays and flounder, the chisel-shaped beak of woodpeckers, the hook-shaped beak of birds of prey, flippers in seals, whales; koalas feed only on eucalyptus leaves, hummingbirds - only on the nectar of flowers of tropical plants.

Catagenesis , or morphophysiological regression.

Accompanied by a simplification of the organization, the disappearance of the organs of active life (general degeneration)

Main directions of evolution

biological progress

(constant increase in the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions)

DRIVING FORCES OF EVOLUTION

Forms of natural selection

distribution of dark-colored butterflies of the birch moth in conditions of darkening of the birch bark from constant smoke

stabilizing

In unchanging, constant conditions of existence

Against individuals with emerging extreme deviations from the average norm of the severity of the trait

Preservation and strengthening of the average norm of manifestation of a trait

Preservation of the size and shape of the flower in insect-pollinated plants (flowers must correspond to the shape and size of the body of the pollinating insect, the structure of its proboscis)

disruptive

In the changing conditions of life

in favor of organisms with extreme deviations from the average severity of the trait

The formation of new average norms instead of the former, which ceased to correspond to the conditions of life

With frequent strong winds, insects with well-developed or rudimentary wings persist on oceanic islands.

Share: