The main form of mental activity. S. formulates a preliminary result of the thought process. S. is based on an effective character and includes a social aspect. Reflecting the relationship of the subject to the object, S. is emotionally saturated. S. - the result of concepts and ideas. Verification of the truth of S. is carried out in the context of its logical verification, criticality. Such work on S. is reasoning. Reasoning, showing the truth of S., becomes its justification, it reveals the legitimacy of S.'s premises and, thus, takes the form of a conclusion. The main types of S.: affirmative and categorical; problematic, reality and necessary.

JUDGMENT

one of the logical forms of thinking (=> concept; inference). Reflects the relationship between two concepts - subject and predicate. In logic, classifications of judgments are developed. Psychology studies their development as a form of abstract, logical thinking, as well as violations of logical thinking. In the psychological literature, interpretations of the psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship of concepts are given.

JUDGMENT

Judgment) is a generally valid verbal form (statement), thanks to which an abstract universality is given to sensory experience. S. contains the subject in the definition of singularity and in the definition of universality. S. develop in people as a transformed and verbally expressed form of perceptual activity that performs a planning and regulatory role in the overall labor process. S. m. b. It is built on the basis of verbal designations of general ideas, which in the initial period of cognition can be observed and ascertained directly in perception, and then formed in various sign and symbolic systems. A number of private S. about objects can be replaced by a new word-name, the content of which will be a collapsed idea of ​​S. objects. With the help of general ideas and S. produced on their basis, a person can make rather complex conclusions. S. is a direct derivative of the object-sensory activity of people. Generalization in S. is based on the principle of formal, abstract identity and is a feature of empirical thinking. But the cognition of socialized humanity from the very beginning acquired a rational form, therefore, sensory data appear in the process of cognition in the form C, and an individual, guided by social needs, relatively disinterestedly singles out the objective properties of objects, and also takes into account the opinions and judgments of others; of people. See Attributive, Knowledge.

JUDGMENT

1. In general - the process of forming an opinion or conclusion based on available material, as well as the prevailing opinion or conclusion. 2. Hypothetical mental faculty, the function of which is to derive such a judgment. This meaning is found only in older works. 3. In logic, a statement about the relationship between symbols in the form of a sentence. 4. Critical evaluation of some thing, event or person. 5. In psychophysics, a decision regarding the presence or absence of a signal or an assessment of its intensity relative to other stimuli.

JUDGMENT

1. The broadest meaning is everything about which something can be asserted, declared, insisted, assumed, told, implied. That is, everything that can be expressed in the standard form of a sentence in the explanatory mood. There are different types of judgments: 2. Formal judgment - a statement that links objects, events and properties (or their symbolic representations) with each other in a certain way. Such judgments are ultimately neither true nor false; their truth consists in their conformity with the principles of logic. The formal judgment "apples are red" is deductively true or false, depending on previous judgments about apples, color, laws of perception, and so on. 3. An empirical judgment is a statement of this kind, but its elements consist of observable objects, events, or actions (or their symbolic representations), and their truth can be empirically verified. The empirical judgment "apples are red" can be obviously true or false, based on observation of apples and determination of their color. 4. A linguistic proposition is a formal statement that represents a component of the meaning underlying the sentence. Here the sentence "apples are red" can be represented as (apples, all, red). The concept of truth does not apply in this case; here it is of interest whether the judgment gives an accurate characterization of the main meaning of the sentence being analyzed.

JUDGMENT

a universally valid verbal form, thanks to which an abstract universality is given to the sensual image. S. develops in people as a converted and verbally expressed form of perceptual activity that performs a planning and regulatory role in the overall labor process. S. can be built on the basis of verbal designations of general ideas, which in the initial period of cognition can be observed and ascertained directly in perception, and then formed in various sign and symbolic systems. A number of private C objects can be replaced by a new word - a name, the content of which will be a collapsed idea of ​​C objects. With the help of general ideas and C. produced on their basis, a person can make rather complex conclusions. S. is a direct product of the object-sensory activity of people. Generalization in S. is based on the principle of formal, abstract identity and is a feature of empirical thinking.

; a mental act expressing the attitude of the speaker to the content of what is being expressed.

When making a judgment, we create those supports that we consider to correspond to reality and therefore allow us to move towards the truth.

A judgment is a reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between properties and features. For example, the proposition "Metals expand when heated" expresses the relationship between changes in temperature and the volume of metals. Establishing in this way various connections and relations between concepts, judgments are saying something about something. They affirm or deny any relationship between objects, events, phenomena of reality. For example, when we say: "The Earth revolves around the Sun", we thereby affirm the existence of a certain objective connection in space between two celestial bodies.

General, particular and singular judgments

Judgments are general, particular and singular. In general judgments, something is affirmed (or denied) in relation to all objects of a given group, a given class, for example, "All fish breathe with gills." In private judgments, or no longer refers to all, but only to some subjects, for example: "Some students are excellent students"; in single judgments - only to one, for example: "This student did not learn the lesson well."

Direct and indirect judgments

Judgments are formed in two main ways:

1. Directly, when they express what is perceived.
2. Indirectly - by inference or.

In the first case, we see, for example, a brown table and make the simplest judgment: "This table is brown." In the second case, with the help of reasoning, other (or other) judgments are derived from some judgments. For example, D.I. Mendeleev, on the basis of the periodic law discovered by him, purely theoretically, only with the help of inferences, deduced and predicted some properties of chemical elements that were still unknown in his time.

True and False Judgments

Development of the ability to judge

A person acquires the ability to build a judgment gradually. Only by the end of the 3rd year of life does the child begin to make separate judgments. Initially, a proposition is a simple, grammatically unrelated combination of words, sometimes even a single word. At the heart of the formation of judgment lies. The correctness of children's judgments, the degree of their correspondence to reality are directly dependent on the quality of generalizations. Psychological and pedagogical observations show that individual forms of judgments do not develop simultaneously. First of all, judgments are formed that state something. Complex judgments, reflecting the multiplicity of dependencies between phenomena, appear later than simple ones and are based on them. In the learning process, the teacher should introduce students to the types of logical connections in the judgment and teach them to identify the logical meaning of grammatical conjunctions, determine the necessary and sufficient conditions, which will allow the student to build a judgment on a specific phenomenon.

Ticket number 7

Essence of judgment and its structure.

Judgment is a form of thought through which the presence or absence of any connections and relations between objects is revealed.

The hallmark of judgment is the affirmation or denial of something about something. The judgment may be true or false. The truth of a judgment is determined by its correspondence to reality, it does not depend on our attitude towards it and is objective. The truth of judgments about the simplest everyday situations is obvious and does not require special research. In science, it took years of hard work to confirm or deny any proposition. This also applies to legal practice.

Every proposition is expressed in a sentence, but not every proposition is a proposition. A judgment can be a sentence that communicates some information that is characterized as true or false, i.e. it can only be a declarative sentence.

The following elements can be distinguished in the judgment: subject, predicate, connective and quantifier.

The subject of judgment (S) is the concept of the subject of judgment, what we judge; it contains the original knowledge.

Judgment predicate (P) called the concept of the sign of the object, what is said about the subject of the judgment. The predicate contains new knowledge about the subject. The subject and predicate are called terms of judgment.

Bundle expresses the relationship between subject and predicate. The link combines the terms of the judgment into a single whole, establishing whether or not the attribute belongs to the subject. A link can be expressed in one word (is, essence, is) or a group of words, or a dash.

quantifier or quantifier word(“all”, “none”, “some”), characterizes the judgment from the side of its quantity, indicates the relation of the judgment to the entire volume of the concept expressing the subject, or to its part.

There are a number of ways to identify the subject and predicate in a sentence. First, we can specifically single out the subject of the judgment, which is the subject of the sentence. For example, "The place where the lawyer Petrov will speak is the court." In this sentence, the subject is the subject, which is emphasized by the introductory sentence. Secondly, the order of words in a sentence must obey the rule, everything known in the judgment is shifted towards the subject at the beginning of the sentence, and the predicate, as a carrier of novelty, is placed at the end. Thirdly, you can use logical stress. In oral speech, it is expressed by amplifying the voice, and in writing by underlining. Finally, it is very important to consider the context, which comes to the rescue in particularly difficult cases.

Types of judgments.

Simple- a judgment expressing the connection of two concepts or expressed by one concept when the second is implied (for example, “This is a person”; “The rose has a pleasant smell”)

by volume of the subject or by quantity;

Single- judgments containing an affirmation or denial of one subject (for example, "This building is an architectural monument").

General- a judgment in which something is affirmed or denied about all objects of a certain class using the words everyone, no one, anyone, everyone (for example: “All the witnesses testified”, “No one came to the meeting.”)

Private- a judgment in which something is affirmed or denied about a part of objects of a certain class using the words some, many, few, most, minority, part (for example, "Part of the crimes Refers to economic").

by the quality of the bond;

affirmative- judgments expressing belonging to the subject of any property;

negative- judgments expressing the absence of an object of any property;

attributive judgments- judgments about the attribute of the subject. They reflect the connection between the object and its attribute, this connection is affirmed or denied. Attributive judgments are also called categorical, i.e. clear, unconditional. The logical scheme of the attributive judgment S - P, where S is the subject of the judgment, P is the predicate, "-" is the link. For example, "The lawyer met with the accused."

judgments about relationships between objects(the so-called judgments with relations). These can be relations of equality, inequality, spatial, temporal, causal, etc. For example: “A is equal to B”, “Kazan is east of Moscow”, “Semyon is Sergey's father”, etc. (relational judgments)

judgments of existence expressing the very fact of the existence or non-existence of the subject of judgment. For example, "There are statistical laws." The predicates of these judgments are the concepts of the existence or non-existence of an object.

33. Concepts, judgments and conclusions as the main forms of thinking, the dialectic of their relationship. Logical errors, logic and sophistry, its correlation of the norms of logic with the norms of morality.

(A) Concepts, judgments and inferences as the main forms of thinking, the dialectic of their relationship.

Thinking – 1) this is a purposeful, mediated and generalized reflection by a person of the essential properties and relations of things; 2) it is an intellectual process of building and correlating thoughts with the aim of forming knowledge to achieve the truth. Human thinking is the main function of his consciousness, and, consequently, the main function of the human brain.

The main forms in which thinking arose, develops and is carried out are concepts, judgments and conclusions.

concept- this is a thought that reflects the general, essential properties, connections of objects and phenomena. The concept is, as it were, the very act of understanding, the pure activity of thinking. Concepts not only reflect the general, but also dismember things, group them, classify them in accordance with their differences. In addition, when we say that we have a concept of something, then by this we mean that we understand the essence of this object. (“Man is a biosocial being with reason, articulate speech, and the ability to work.”) Unlike sensation, perception, and representations, concepts are devoid of visibility or sensibility. (The content of a concept is often impossible to imagine in the form of a visual image. It is impossible to imagine "evil", "kindness".) In different eras, concepts are different in content. They are different at different levels of development of the same person. Scientific thinking requires a precise definition of each concept.

Concepts arise and exist in the human head only in a certain connection, in the form judgments. To think means to judge something, to identify certain connections and relationships between various aspects of an object or between objects.

Judgment– it is such a form of thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something is affirmed (denied) about something. (Example: “Maple is a plant” is a judgment in which the idea is expressed about maple that it is a plant)

If in our minds there were only one concept, not connected with each other, then there could be no process of thinking. Concepts live only in the context of judgments. We can say that a judgment is an expanded concept, and the concept itself is a collapsed judgment.

The verbal form of expressing a judgment is offer. Judgments are always a connection of 2 concepts: what is being said and what is being said. There are single, private and general judgments: “Newton discovered the law of gravity”, “Some people are evil”, “Bone is one of the active tissues”. Judgments are divided into affirmative and negative.

A person can come to one or another judgment by direct observation of a fact or indirectly - with the help of conclusions. Thinking is not mere judgment. In the real process of thinking, concepts and judgments are included in a chain of more complex mental actions - in reasoning. A relatively complete unit of reasoning is a conclusion. The propositions from which a conclusion is drawn are called premises.

inference – an operation of thinking, during which a new judgment is derived from a comparison of a number of premises. Inference is a higher level of logical mediation than judgment. (Example of inference: A person, waking up in the morning in winter, sees snow patterns on the window, he comes to the conclusion that there was a severe frost at night.) Inference as a comparison of judgments brought humanity a fundamentally new cognitive opportunity: it saved him from the need to constantly “poke his nose” into the results of a single experience and build an innumerable set of private judgments.

Additionally: There was also at that time a need for conjectural knowledge, in hypothesis.

Hypothesis – it is an assumption that proceeds from a series of facts and admits the existence of an object, its properties, certain relations.

A hypothesis is a kind of inference that tries to penetrate into the essence of an area of ​​the world that has not yet been sufficiently studied, it is a kind of staff with which a scientist feels the way to the world of the unknown, or, as I. Goethe said, “scaffolding that is erected in front of a building under construction and demolished when the building ready.

Due to its probabilistic nature, the hypothesis requires verification and proof, after which it acquires the character theories.

Theory is a system of objectively correct, practice-tested knowledge that reproduces facts, events and their supposed causes in a certain logical connection. (This is a system of judgment and inference that explains a certain class of phenomena and carries out scientific foresight.)

Laws form the core of scientific theory. Based on a deep knowledge of things, their properties and relationships, a person can break through the boundaries of the present and look into the future, foreseeing the existence of still unknown things, predicting the probable and necessary occurrence of events. The crowning achievement of scientific work, according to N. A. Umov, is prediction.

(B) Logical errors, logic and sophistry, correlation of norms logic with rules morality.

In any reasoning, the meaning of all terms used once must be unchanged. The content of thoughts involved in reasoning should, as it were, freeze for the period of reasoning and not change in any way. Hence the fundamental, initial and most fundamental feature of all formal logic, extending to mathematics - identity law. (A=A) This law was first formulated and substantiated by Aristotle ("Thought must be identical to itself!")

Main logical fallacy associated with the violation of the law of identity is called term change.(

1. medicine is good

2. the more good, the better

here there was a substitution of the term - "good" in 1 and 2 have a different meaning)

There are also other formally logical errors (although most of them are, in essence, only variants of "substitution"):

hasty generalization (by analogy)

argument to the public (appeal to the interests of the audience)

devil's argument (inappropriate exaggeration)

Mistake- this is an unintentional violation of the rules and laws of logical thinking - paralogism. Paralogism, as a rule, leads to delusions.

If logical errors are made intentionally by someone (with the conscious purpose of misleading the interlocutor), this will be sophism(from gr. - sophism - fabrication, cunning). In its structure, paralogism does not differ from sophism. The latter differs from the former only in its origin. In this respect, sophism is a kind of lie, an intellectual fraud.

In ancient Greece, a sophist was first called a person who devoted himself to mental activity. (Solon and Pythagoras) Subsequently, the meaning of this concept narrowed, although it did not yet contain a negative meaning. Sophists - “teachers of wisdom” - taught not only the technique of political and legal activity, but also questions of philosophy, and also taught methods and forms of persuasion and proof, regardless of the question of the truth of thought, for example: “What you have not lost, you have; you have not lost the horns, therefore you have them." In their striving for persuasiveness, the sophists came to the idea that it is possible, and often necessary, to prove anything, and also to refute anything, depending on interest and circumstances, which led to an indifferent attitude towards truth in proofs and refutations. This is how the methods of thinking developed, which became known as sophistry. Main representatives: Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodik. Protagoras owns the famous position: "Man is the measure of all things: those that exist, that they exist, and those that do not exist, that they do not exist." He spoke about the relativity of any knowledge, any assertion, which can be countered with equal grounds by an assertion that contradicts it.

Logical errors arise in connection with the low logical culture of a person who is not able to identify paralogism, both in his own reasoning and in the reasoning of the interlocutor. Such a person is a convenient ground for the perception of any kind of sophisms, i.e. he can be easily deceived for any purpose by other people who are more skilled in using the apparatus of logic and dialectics in their unity, but "not clean at hand." Thus, the use of sophisms is normal from the point of view of the norms of formal logic, but not in any way incompatible with the norms of morality. (Similarly, in religion, “devilry” begins with a picturesque, and therefore attractive looseness of thoughts, with a number of their substitutions in the process of reflection and with sophistry. Therefore, Christianity has always paid great attention to logic, and used public disputes, accompanied by logically justified criticism of the opponents of the church) .

Judgment (English judgment)- a generally valid verbal form (statement), thanks to which an abstract universality is given to sensory experience. The judgment contains the object in the definition of singularity and in the definition of universality. Judgment takes shape in people as a converted and verbally expressed form of perceptual activity that performs a planning and regulating role in the overall labor process. S. m. b. It is built on the basis of verbal designations of general ideas, which in the initial period of cognition can be observed and ascertained directly in perception, and then formed in various sign and symbolic systems. A number of private S. about objects can be replaced by a new word-name, the content of which will be a collapsed idea of ​​S. objects. With the help of general ideas and S. produced on their basis, a person can make rather complex conclusions.

Judgment is a direct derivative of the subject-sensory activity of people. generalization in S. is based on the principle of formal, abstract identity and is a feature of empirical thinking. But the cognition of socialized mankind from the very beginning acquired a rational form, therefore, sensory data appear in the process of cognition in the form of S., and an individual, guided by social needs, relatively disinterestedly singles out the objective properties of objects, and also takes into account the opinions and judgments of other people. Cm . Attributive, Knowledge.

Great Encyclopedia of Psychiatry. Zhmurov V.A.

Judgment

1. a form of thought in the form of a statement about the presence or absence of an object of some property, quality. There are such judgments: a) a formal judgment - a statement that connects objects, phenomena, events in a certain way; the truth of such a judgment consists in its compliance with the principles of formal logic (depending on whether or not it contradicts the original judgments); b) empirical judgment - a judgment, the truth of which can be verified empirically. For example, one can be sure that "an apple is red" just by looking at it; c) linguistic judgment - a formal judgment that represents a component of the meaning underlying the sentence. For example, the judgments "apples are red" can be represented as "apples, all of them, are red". There are different connotations (logical predicates) of a judgment, it depends on the form in which they are expressed. In a categorical judgment, the individual speaks as if he had no doubts about its truth. In a hypothetical judgment, only an assumption is made about something. In other judgments, relations of knowledge, faith, doubts, convictions, evaluations, etc. are expressed. (“I think...”, “I do not consider it necessary...”, “I believe...”, etc.). Developed abstract thinking allows the individual to differentiate many of these shades of judgment and prefer the rational aspect of judgment;
2. a hypothetical mental faculty whose function is to generate a judgment;
3. in psychopathology - a disorder of the ability to judge judgments consists in the fact that judgments are considered true that correspond to some affective, irrational need or are caused by a violation of thinking. In addition, the semantic connotations of the judgment, the changes in its meaning depending on the context in which it is used, are not distinguished;
4. the process of forming an opinion or conclusion based on available material, as well as the opinion or opinion formed;
5. a critical assessment of some thing, event, person, oneself;
6. in psychophysics, a decision regarding the presence or absence of a signal or its intensity in comparison with other stimuli.

Dictionary of psychiatric terms. V.M. Bleikher, I.V. Crook

Judgment- the main form of mental activity. S. formulates a preliminary result of the thought process. Judgment is fundamentally actionable and has a social aspect. Reflecting the relationship of the subject to the object, S. is emotionally saturated.

Judgment is the result of concepts and ideas. Verification of the truth of S. is carried out in the context of its logical verification, criticality. Such work on S. is reasoning. Reasoning, showing the truth of S., becomes its justification, it reveals the legitimacy of S.'s premises and, thus, takes the form of a conclusion. The main types of S.: affirmative and categorical; problematic, reality and necessary.

Dictionary of practical psychologist. S.Yu. Golovin

Judgment- one of the logical forms of thinking (=> concept; inference). Reflects the relationship between two concepts - subject and predicate. In logic, classifications of judgments are developed. Psychology studies their development as a form of abstract, logical thinking, as well as violations of logical thinking. In the psychological literature, interpretations of the psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship of concepts are given.

Oxford Dictionary of Psychology

Judgment

1. In general, the process of forming an opinion or conclusion based on available material, as well as the prevailing opinion or conclusion.
2. A hypothetical mental faculty whose function is to make such a judgment. This meaning is found only in older works.
3. In logic, a statement about the relationship between symbols in the form of a sentence.
4. A critical appraisal of some thing, event, or person.
5. In psychophysics, a decision regarding the presence or absence of a signal, or an assessment of its intensity in relation to other stimuli.

subject area of ​​the term