Prince Svyatoslav. Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich Board of Svyatoslav foreign and domestic policy table

Prince of Novgorod and Kyiv Svyatoslav Igorevich ruled the Russian state from 944 to 972. The ruler is known for his military campaigns and conquests, battles against the Bulgarian state and Byzantium.

Svyatoslav became the only son of Prince Igor and Princess Olga. The exact date of birth of the future ruler is still not known. According to the Ipatiev list, Svyatoslav Igorevich was born in 942 (some sources indicate 940). There is no record of the event in the Laurentian list. This raises a lot of questions among researchers, since the information is contradictory. In literary sources, the year 920 is stated, but historians consider this a fiction, not the truth.

The upbringing of the prince's son was entrusted to the Varangian Asmud, who emphasized basic skills. Young Svyatoslav received knowledge that was useful in military campaigns: the art of combat, the management of horses, a rook, swimming, the skill of disguise. Another mentor, the governor Sveneld, was responsible for the military art. The first data about Svyatoslav, which can be seen in the Russian-Byzantine treaty of Prince Igor, began to appear in 944. A year later, the prince dies.

The death of the ruler led to the dissatisfaction of the Drevlyans about the collection of too much tribute. Since Svyatoslav Igorevich is still a child, the reins of government are transferred to his mother, Princess Olga. A year after the murder of her husband, Olga goes to the lands of the Drevlyans. As befits the head of state, 4-year-old Svyatoslav begins the battle with his father's squad. The young ruler won the battle. The princess forced the Drevlyans to submit. To prevent such tragedies from happening in the future, the regent introduces a new system of government.

The annals say that in childhood Svyatoslav Igorevich did not part with his mother and constantly lived in Kyiv. Scientists have found evidence of the incorrectness of this judgment. The Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus recounted the following:

“Monoxyls coming from outer Russia to Constantinople are one of Nemogard, in which Sfendoslav, son of Ingor, archon of Russia, sat.”

Researchers believe that Svyatoslav moved to Novgorod at the request of his father. There was a mention in the annals of Olga's visit to Constantinople. At the same time, they talk about the future prince, without naming the title of Svyatoslav Igorevich.

Beginning of the reign

The Tale of Bygone Years says that the first campaign of Svyatoslav Igorevich happened in 964. The main goal of the ruler was to strike at the Khazar Khaganate. The prince did not become distracted by the Vyatichi, who met along the way. The attack on the Khazars fell a year later - in 965. The chronicle says the following about this:

“In the summer of 6473 (965) Svyatoslav went to the Khazars. Having heard, the Khazars went out to meet him with their prince kagan and agreed to fight, and Svyatoslav the Khazars defeated them in the battle, and took their city and the White Tower. And he defeated the yases of the icasogs.

Interestingly, a contemporary of Svyatoslav presents events in a different way. Ibn-Khaukal argued that the prince dealt with the Khazars later than the time indicated in the annals.

A contemporary recalled other military actions against the Volga Bulgaria, but such information is not available in official sources. Here is what Ibn Haukal said:

“Bulgar is a small city, there are no numerous districts in it, and it was known for being a port for the states mentioned above, and the Rus devastated it and came to Khazaran, Samandar and Itil in the year 358 (968/969) and set off immediately after to the country of Rum and Andalus ... And al-Khazar is a side, and there is a city in it called Samandar, and it is in the space between it and Bab al-Abwab, and there were numerous gardens in it ... but then the Rus came there, and not there are no grapes or raisins left in that city.”

In 965 Svyatoslav Igorevich arrives in Sarkel-on-Don. Several battles were required to conquer this city. But the ruler did not celebrate the victory for long, as Itil, the main city of the Khazar Khaganate, appeared on the way. The conqueror got one more settlement - Semender. This glorious city is located on the shores of the Caspian Sea.

The Khazar Khaganate fell before the onslaught of Svyatoslav, but this was not enough for the ruler. The prince tried to win back and secure these lands. Soon Sarkel was renamed into Belaya Vezha. According to some reports, in the same years, Kyiv received Tmutarakan. It is believed that it was possible to hold power until the beginning of the 980s.

Domestic politics

The domestic policy of Svyatoslav Igorevich was active. The ruler set himself the goal of strengthening power by attracting military squads. Politics did not attract the young prince, so there were no special changes in the internal activities of the state during the years of Svyatoslav's reign.

Despite the dislike for the internal affairs of Russia, Svyatoslav Igorevich made some adjustments. In particular, he formed a new system for collecting taxes and taxes. In different parts of the Old Russian state, special places were organized - graveyards. Here they collected money from the inhabitants. Svyatoslav Igorevich was able to overcome the Vyatichi, who now and then rebelled against the ruler. During the campaign, the prince pacified the violent people. Thanks to this, the treasury began to replenish again. Despite the work in this direction, Princess Olga took on most of the concerns.

The wisdom of the reign of the Grand Duke is manifested after the birth of sons. Svyatoslav Igorevich needed to put faithful and devoted people on the thrones in different cities. In Kyiv, Yaropolk ruled, in Novgorod - Oleg became Prince of Drevlyansky.

Foreign policy

Foreign policy became the passion of the young prince. On his account, several major wars - with the Bulgarian kingdom and Byzantium. Many versions in history have these important events for Russia. Historians settled on two variations of the struggle against the Bulgarian kingdom. The first opinion was that it all started with a conflict between Byzantium and the Bulgarian kingdom. In this regard, the Byzantine emperor turned to Svyatoslav Igorevich for help. It was his soldiers who were supposed to attack Bulgaria.

The second opinion lies in the fact that Byzantium tried to weaken the Kiev prince, since the ruler was able to conquer their lands. And there was no peace in the Byzantine state: the ambassador who arrived at Svyatoslav decided to plot against his emperor. He persuaded the Russian prince, promised him Bulgarian lands and treasures from the treasury of Byzantium.

The invasion of Bulgaria took place in 968. Svyatoslav Igorevich managed to overcome opponents and conquer Pereyaslavets, located at the mouth of the Danube. Relations with the Byzantine state began to deteriorate gradually. In the same year, the Pechenegs raided Kyiv, so the prince had to urgently return to the capital of Russia. In 969, Princess Olga, who was engaged in the internal politics of the state, died. This prompted Svyatoslav Igorevich to attract children to the board. The prince did not want to stay in the capital:

“I don’t like to sit in Kyiv, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube - for there is the middle of my land, all good things flow there: from the Greek land, gold, curtains, wines, various fruits; from the Czech Republic and from Hungary silver and horses; from Russia, furs and wax, honey and slaves.

Despite the fact that it was the Byzantine government that organized the raid on the Bulgarians, the latter turned to them for help in the fight against Svyatoslav. The emperor thought for a long time what to do, but then decided to strengthen his state with a dynastic marriage. At the end of 969, the sovereign dies, and John Tzimisces ascended the throne. He did not allow the Bulgarian son and the Byzantine maiden to get engaged.

Painting "Meeting of Svyatoslav with John Tzimisces". K. Lebedev, 1916

Realizing that Byzantium is no longer an assistant, the authorities of the Bulgarian state decide to conclude an agreement with Svyatoslav Igorevich. Together the rulers go against Byzantium. Military tension between the empire and the Russian state grew. Gradually, troops were brought up to the fortresses. In 970 there was an attack on Byzantium. On the side of Svyatoslav were the Bulgarians, Hungarians and Pechenegs. Despite the serious advantages in terms of the number of military men, Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich was defeated in a pitched battle.

The painting "The Trinity of Svyatoslav's Vigilantes after the Battle of Dorostol in 971". Henryk Semiradsky

A year later, the troops regained strength and again began to raid the Byzantine state. Now the rulers are in battle. Again the fighters of Byzantium were more successful. They captured the Bulgarian king and crept up to Svyatoslav. In one of the battles, the prince was wounded. After that, the Byzantine emperor and the Russian ruler sat down at the negotiating table. Svyatoslav Igorevich leaves Bulgaria, but restores trade relations with Byzantium. Now the eastern part of the Bulgarian state submits to the emperor. Western regions gained independence.

Personal life

Military campaigns became the main goal of the life of Svyatoslav Igorevich. The personal life of the prince was developing successfully. The ruler became the father of three sons - Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir. The care of the internal politics of the state fell on the shoulders of the young sons, while the father conquered new territories.

The painting "Grand Duke Svyatoslav kissing his mother and children upon his return from the Danube to Kyiv". I. A. Akimov, 1773

In the official documents of that time there is no information about the wife who gave birth to two eldest sons. It is known about Vladimir's mother. The woman was not married to the prince, but was a concubine.

Death and memory

The biography of Svyatoslav Igorevich ends in March 972. The prince could not remain at the mouth of the Dnieper. Together with the army, the ruler tried to get through the ambush of the Pechenegs. This was a disastrous mistake, as the weakened fighters fell at the hands of the nomads. The Pechenegs brutally dealt with Svyatoslav:

“And Kurya, the prince of the Pechenegs, attacked him; and they killed Svyatoslav, and cut off his head, and made a cup out of the skull, encasing the skull, and then they drank from it.

During the reign, the prince expanded the territory of the state and received the nickname Brave. Svyatoslav is so called in historical references. The memory of Svyatoslav Igorevich lives to this day. The image of the warrior prince was used in fiction and art. At the beginning of the 20th century, the first monument "Svyatoslav on the way to Tsar-grad" appeared. Sculptures are located in Kyiv and Ukrainian regions.

A peculiar photo is available on the Internet. According to the descriptions of the contemporaries of the prince, the masters created a portrait: a man of medium height, snub-nosed, with thick eyebrows, blue eyes, a long mustache, a strong nape and a broad chest.

The actions of Prince Svyatoslav in relation to neighboring countries were not the actions of a diplomat and politician, but rather of a commander and conqueror. The prince valued the support of his army so much that, to please him, he did not change his faith following the example of his mother, but remained a pagan. Such proximity of Svyatoslav to ordinary soldiers gave an excellent result - his army was powerful and invincible.

The beginning of the victorious procession of Svyatoslav's squad was a campaign in an easterly direction - against the Khazar Khaganate in 964. The Khazars were the main competitors of the Russians in trade, and the defeat of their key cities actually leveled their influence in South-Eastern Europe. Alas, this victory brought more problems than positive moments. Khazaria held back the onslaught of nomadic tribes, preventing them from advancing towards Kievan Rus, with the fall of the kaganate, the hordes of nomads moved towards Kyiv. The main rival of Russia - Byzantium - maintained complete neutrality with respect to the Khazars. Apparently, the Byzantine emperor played into the hands of the defeat of Khazaria.

In the Western direction, the main problem of Byzantium was Bulgaria. Therefore, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus prompted Svyatoslav to pay close attention to the western borders of the state. In 968, Svyatoslav Igorevich launched a campaign against Bulgaria. He quickly advanced along the Danube, seizing lands, and settled in the city of Pereyaslavets, collecting tribute. Svyatoslav's plans even included the transfer of the capital from Kyiv to Pereyaslavets, but bad news from his native land forced him to send an army towards the house. The Pechenegs, who were no longer held back by the Khazars, attacked Kyiv, having learned that the prince and his retinue were far away. Only in 970 Svyatoslav was able to return to the Balkans.

During this time, significant changes took place: the new Byzantine ruler John Tzimiskes himself wanted to establish himself in Bulgaria, therefore he tried in every possible way to convince Svyatoslav to leave from there. As a result of diplomatic negotiations, the Bulgarian government entered into an alliance with Byzantium against Russia. Svyatoslav had to fight with the already increased enemy forces. For the first time, the prince was defeated in 971 near Arcadiopol, as a result of which he was forced to retreat and hold the siege of the Byzantine troops for three months. Exhausted by this siege? Svyatoslav Igorevich concludes a peace treaty with the emperor of Byzantium.

Under this treaty, the lands near the Danube, as well as the Crimea, were ceded to Byzantium, while the Russians were allowed to go home in peace and were promised to continue to maintain good neighborly relations.

But the cunning of the Byzantine emperor knows no bounds. Peace with the Russians was clearly concluded only in order to gain time. John Tzimiskes informed the Pecheneg Khan Kure that Svyatoslav was returning to Kyiv with an exhausted army. On the Dnieper rapids, a meeting took place between the squad of Svyatoslav and the Pechenegs. The prince was well aware that the forces at the moment were not equal, therefore he retreated to Beloberezh in order to spend the winter there and rest. In the spring of 972, at the rapids of the Dnieper, on the island of Khortitsa, he again met with the Pechenegs. In a terrible battle, the army of Svyatoslav was defeated, and the prince himself died. Kurya - the king of the Pechenegs - cut off Svyatoslav's head and made a goblet from the skull, bound in gold. According to pagan customs, all the power of the vanquished was to go to him.

11. The adoption of an official religion by the early feudal states was of great importance. The ruling classes received in the new religion a powerful ideological tool for strengthening their dominance, and in the person of the Christian Church - a new branched political organization, carrying out the tasks of the divine sanctification of the existing system.

The adoption of Christianity, which replaced the obsolete paganism, made it possible to continue the further economic growth of the country, made it possible to significantly increase the weight of Russia in the world around it, turning the barbaric country of pagans into an enlightened nation. Christianity, as the most humanistic religion, contributed to the spiritual and moral growth of our people.

The historical significance of this time was as follows:

1) Familiarization of the Slavic-Finnish world with the values ​​of Christianity.

2) Creation of conditions for the full-blooded cooperation of the tribes of the East European Plain with other Christian tribes and nationalities.

3) Russia was recognized as a Christian state, which determined a higher level of relations with European countries and peoples.

The Russian Church, which developed in cooperation with the state, became a force uniting the inhabitants of different lands into a cultural and political community.

Initiation to the thousand-year-old Christian history posed new cultural and spiritual tasks for Russian society and pointed to the means of solving them (the development of the centuries-old heritage of the Greco-Roman civilization, the development of original forms of literature, art, and religious life). Borrowing became the basis for cooperation. The baptism of Russia, understood not as a short-term action, not as a mass rite, but as a process of gradual Christianization of the East Slavic and neighboring tribes - the baptism of Russia created new forms of the inner life of these ethnic groups approaching each other and new forms of their interaction with the outside world .

Thus, religion, as the dominant form of the ideology of the early feudal society, played a huge role in the formation of statehood and culture, in strengthening the first states on the territory of Russia.

12. Features of Domestic policy:
1) strengthening the foundations of the unity of Russian society within the framework of a single state
2) Yaroslav sent governors (sons) to the main (often trading) cities and demanded unquestioning obedience from them
3) church building
4) the elimination of the dependence of the church on Byzantium (1051 - the Russian monk Hilarion becomes the metropolitan)
5) opening of the first Russian schools, church libraries, translation centers at monasteries
6) the emergence of a clear system of inheritance
7) 1072 - the appearance of Russian truth - the first written law in Russia

Control system:
At the head - the Great Kyiv Prince
He is subject to:
- metropolitan
- specific princes
- squad => senior (boyars) and younger (lads) squad
Veche consists of a community and interacts with the prince.

13. Feudal fragmentation is a natural process of economic strengthening and political isolation of feudal estates. Feudal fragmentation is most often understood as the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of one state of practically independent from each other, independent state entities that formally had a common supreme ruler.

The main reason for feudal fragmentation is the change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his combatants as a result of the latter settling on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery was less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century, the process of "settlement" of the squad on the ground intensified.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Russia was played by the developing institution of feudal immunity, which provides for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his fiefdom. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered court. As a result, a state apparatus, a squad, courts, prisons, etc., are formed in independent principalities-patrimonies, and specific princes begin to dispose of communal lands, transfer them on their own behalf to boyars and monasteries. Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty.

Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people inhabiting it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between the local principalities and Kiev also changed. Service dependence is being replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.
All these economic and political processes politically meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This disintegration, as it was in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars.

Lyubech congress Russian princes took place in 1097, in the city Lyubech that on the Dnieper. On the Lubsk congress managed to agree on joint actions to protect the Russian land from nomadic raids. main event Lyubech Congress was the proclamation of the principles of inheritance by the princes of the lands of their fathers. This decision meant the emergence of a new political system in Russia, the basis of which was a large feudal landownership. Unfortunately, right after Lyubech Congress strife began again.

15. Galicia-Volyn principality(lat. Regnum Rusiae - kingdom of Russia; 1199-1392) - the southwestern Old Russian principality of the Rurik dynasty, created as a result of the unification of the Volyn and Galician principalities by Roman Mstislavich. The Galicia-Volyn principality was one of the largest principalities of the period of feudal fragmentation of Russia. It included the Galician, Przemysl, Zvenigorod, Terebovlyan, Volyn, Lutsk, Belz, Polissya and Kholm lands, as well as the territories of modern Podlasie, Podolia, Transcarpathia and Moldova.

The Principality pursued an active foreign policy in Eastern and Central Europe. Its main neighbors and competitors were the Kingdom of Poland, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Cumans, and from the middle of the XIII century - also the Golden Horde and the Principality of Lithuania. To protect against them, the Galicia-Volyn principality repeatedly signed agreements with Catholic Rome, the Holy Roman Empire and the Teutonic Order.

The Galicia-Volyn principality fell into decay under the influence of a number of factors. Among them were aggravated relations with the Golden Horde, in vassal relations to which the principality continued to be, during the period of its unification and subsequent strengthening at the beginning of the XIV century. After the simultaneous death of Leo and Andrei Yurievich (1323), the lands of the principality began to be seized by its neighbors - the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The dependence of the rulers on the boyar aristocracy increased, the Romanovich dynasty was cut short. The principality ceased to exist after the complete division of its territories following the war for the Galician-Volyn inheritance (1392).

16. Novgorod territory included the basin of Lake Ilmen and the rivers Volkhov, Msta, Lovat, Shelon, Mologa. The territory stretched from the Gulf of Finland to the Urals, from the Ledovsky Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga.

A more severe climate compared to other Russian territories determined the poor development of agriculture here. The prince in Novgorod has always been secondary in relation to the urban population. There was no princely dynasty here. A feature of the political life of Novgorod was the tradition of calling the prince to the throne. The functions of princely power in Novgorod were as follows:

1. The prince was the head of the fighting squad.

2. Was a link between Russia and other lands.

3. Accepted tribute.

4. Was the highest court.

The leading role in the Novgorod Republic was played by people's self-government. This was expressed in the fact that the Novgorodians could drive out the objectionable prince. In addition, there was a gradual restriction of princely power in Novgorod. Since 1036, an invitation by the Novgorodians to the prince on certain conditions has been spreading.

The supreme authority in Novgorod is the veche. It did not consist of the entire male population, but of the owners of urban estates (400 - 500 people). City officials were also elected at the veche. This is a posadnik, a thousand, archimandrite of Novgorod. The posadnik's duties included helping the prince in leading military campaigns, conducting diplomatic negotiations, and concluding agreements with the prince. Tysyatsky is the main organizer of tax collection. (The whole city was divided into 10 hundreds, headed by sots. Sots were subordinate to the thousand). Archimandrite is the head of the Novgorod church.

1. Boyars. ("men", "big people")

This is the upper class of the city. Its representatives were descended from tribal nobility, had large land holdings.

2. "Lesser people." These are feudal lords of non-Yar origin. As a rule, they received land on the terms of public service.

3. Merchants (trading class).

4. "Black people." The lowest stratum of the population in the social hierarchy. Among the urban population, they were artisans, and in the countryside - communal peasants.

5. Smerdy. These are ancient Russian slaves who lived in special settlements in complete personal dependence on their masters.

The unique traditions of urban self-government that developed in the Novgorod Republic, however, did not begin to determine the trends in the political development of other Russian principalities, where the monarchical form of government prevailed and the institution of princely power played a leading role.

Agriculture, fishing, hunting
Medieval society was agrarian. Novgorod did not represent an exception in this area. The vast majority of the population was engaged in agriculture. The city was closely connected with the rural district.

Land wealth in the XIV-XV centuries formed the basis of the power of the ruling elite - the boyars. Wealthy boyar families and some monasteries owned hundreds of villages with dependent peasants.

Until the 13th century, agriculture developed at a very slow pace. External factors influenced: crop failure, epidemics, loss of livestock. The peasants of the frontier lands constantly suffered from small foreign predatory raids. In the XIII century, the outdated slash-and-burn system of agriculture, which forced the peasants to constantly look for new forests to create fertile soils, and therefore constantly roam, began to be replaced by a new three-field system, which gives greater efficiency. There was also a two-tooth plow with a police, increasing the efficiency of tillage. The main grain crop was rye. Half of all crops were allocated for rye (the only winter crop). And the three-field area was supposed to have one field with winter crops. Buckwheat, flax, barley, millet, oats, and wheat were also grown. Gardening was widespread. They grew onions, garlic, cabbage, turnips. There were hop makers - producers of raw materials for one of the most consumed drinks in medieval Novgorod - beer.

In the rivers and lakes of the Novgorod land, fish were abundant, both “black” (carp, pike, perch, etc.) and “red” (sturgeon, salmon). Naturally, fish were caught in large quantities by the Novgorodians. Crayfish were also caught, of which there were also many at that time. Novgorodians did not know sugar, so honey and wax were valuable. In this regard, beekeeping was very common - harvesting honey. Specially bees were not bred, honey was taken from wild hollow bees. Hunting and animal husbandry were very common. Hunting grounds were mentioned more than once in letters of sale. The forests of the Novgorod lands abounded in many species of animals, fur-bearing animals were especially valued. Novgorod was the largest exporter of furs to Europe, supplied squirrel, marten, sable and other furs.

CRAFTS

Although the agriculture of the Novgorod lands was mostly subsistence, the peasants still needed the products of some highly skilled artisans, thus giving an incentive for the development of handicrafts. In medieval Novgorod, many professions of artisans from blacksmith to jeweler were common. Many of them were very narrow, such as the shield, carnation, cauldron and others. The iron industry produced knives, axes, sickles, other agricultural implements, and weapons. In the 15th century, the Novgorod industry began to produce firearms. Moreover, weapons made for a wealthy customer were often richly decorated with precious stones and metals.

The profession of a locksmith was considered especially narrow and extremely difficult: padlocks sometimes consisted of 30-40 small parts. A large assortment of products was made by craftsmen - woodworkers. Many musical instruments made by such craftsmen were found in the cultural layer of Novgorod: psaltery, pipes, whistles, etc. Pottery, weaving, leather and footwear crafts were also widespread.

Trade
Novgorod was the main "window to Europe" for Russia. Novgorod was an integral part of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", that is, from the countries of Scandinavia to Byzantium. At the same time, Novgorod stood on the way from the states of the Ancient East to Russia and the countries of the Baltic coast. Bargaining was located on the right bank of the Volkhov, opposite the citadel, with which it was connected by the Great Bridge. The shops, of which there were about 1800, were divided into rows. The name of the series corresponded to the products sold on it.

The beginning of Novgorod's trade with the countries of Western Europe dates back to the 10th-11th centuries.

From Russia, German merchants exported mainly furs. Wax was another widely exported commodity. To illuminate the huge halls and Gothic cathedrals, many candles were required. There was not enough wax in Western Europe, so the Novgorod beekeepers could not only provide their region with wax, but also sell it abroad.

Fabrics were imported to Novgorod - mostly expensive cloth. Novgorod weaving fully satisfied the everyday needs of Novgorodians in clothing, but for festive occasions they preferred more expensive fabrics.

culture
According to popular belief, unlike other European states of that time, the Novgorod Republic had a very high level of literacy not only among the nobility, but also among ordinary citizens. However, there is also an opposite opinion.

Similar information.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY

HISTORICAL FACULTY

FOREIGN POLICY OF KYIV RUSSIA IN THE IX-XII CENTURIES: THE FOREIGN POLICY OF SVYATOSLAV IGOREVICH

MINSK, 2005

INTRODUCTION

In the IX-XI centuries. Russia was an early feudal monarchy headed by the great prince of Kiev. Under him, a council of the most noble and powerful feudal lords was formed, and an apparatus of warriors also operated. Princely representatives (posadniks and governors) were appointed to cities. In vassal dependence on the Grand Duke were his relatives - appanage princes -, boyars - owners of large land masses - and smaller feudal lords.

The foreign policy of the great Kiev princes was entirely subordinated to the task of strengthening Russia and uniting the tribes of the Eastern Slavs under the auspices of Kyiv. In the X century. Kievan Rus was just taking shape as a state. More and more new tribes of the Eastern Slavs poured into it: the Drevlyans, the Radimichi, the Vyatichi, and so on. Kiev princes Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir Svyatoslavich consistently pursued a policy of annexing neighboring lands. By the beginning of the XI century. almost all East Slavic lands were included in Kievan Rus.

Regular raids by nomadic tribes - Pechenegs, Khazars, Polovtsy - posed a threat to the young state, undermining its economy and the political unity of the Slavic lands. Therefore, one more task can be singled out in foreign policy, and at the same time an important one - the defense of borders and their expansion due to the subjugation of neighboring peoples.

Prince Svyatoslav (964 - 972) put a lot of effort into ensuring the security of the Russian lands and strengthening the international prestige of the young ancient Russian state. He defeated the Volga Bulgaria, defeated the Khazar Khaganate. Svyatoslav also waged successful wars with the Pechenegs, the Danube Bulgarians, and the Byzantine Empire.

PERSONALITY OF PRINCE SVYATOSLAV IGOREVICH.

Kyiv Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich was the son of Prince Igor and Princess Olga. Leo the Deacon left us a description of his appearance: “... of moderate height, not too tall and not very short, with shaggy eyebrows and light blue eyes, snub-nosed, beardless, with thick, excessively long hair above the upper lip (mustache). His head was completely naked, but on one side a tuft of hair hung down - a sign of nobility of the family. Strong nape, broad chest and all other parts of the body are quite proportionate. He looked sullen and wild. He had a gold earring in one ear; it was adorned with a carbuncle framed by two pearls.

His attire was white and differed from the clothes of others (Russian rowers) only in cleanliness.

Svyatoslav matured early. His mother tried to draw her son's attention to Christianity, but Svyatoslav's thoughts were far from that. Having matured, Svyatoslav began to gather a squad for himself, and it didn’t matter to the prince what nationality his warriors would be: the main thing was that they were good warriors. When he went on a campaign, he did not carry a convoy with him, which ensured the speed of movement (“lightly walking, like a pardus”), he ate, along with simple wars, horse meat or the meat of animals killed on occasion, slept on bare ground, spreading a “lining” and putting a saddle in heads.

The words of Svyatoslav Igorevich went down in history forever: "I want to go to you."

The Greeks, Khazars and Pechenegs had to fight with this man.

THE EASTERN DIRECTION OF SVYATOSLAV'S POLICY

(964-966)

Russian-Khazar-Byzantine relations in the middleXin.

In the X century. Russians repeatedly penetrated into the region of Transcaucasia, but by the middle of the 10th century. couldn't get a foothold there. The reasons for the failure are as follows: the remoteness of the territories they captured in the Caspian Sea, the hostility of the local Muslim population, the hostility of the Khazar Khaganate, which closed the waterway along the Don and Volga. In 912, the Russians asked the Khazars to let their boats through, and on the way back, most of them were killed by the Khazars, Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Given the similar attitude of the Khazars towards them, the Russians made the next campaign in 945 bypassing the Khaganate and its allies on the Volga and Oka, i.e. land through the North Caucasus.

In addition to the above, the question arose of the liberation of the East Slavic lands from the influence of the Khazars and the consolidation of the power of Kyiv over them. The first attempt here was made by Oleg, who in 885 sent an embassy to the Radimichi who were sitting along the banks of the Sozh River, ordering them not to give tribute to the Khazars, but to give him a shelyag from a plow or from a plow.

Byzantium has long had influence in the Northern Black Sea region. She used the Kaganate as a conductor of her policy. Of course, it could not do without conflicts and clashes, but on the whole, the political aspirations of the empire and the kaganate coincided. It is no coincidence that in 834 Greek engineers built the fortress of Sarkel (Belaya Vezha) on the lower Don. The Greeks foresaw the rise of Russia and sought to forestall its expansion.

However, Russia began to act first.

Destruction of the Khazar Khaganate by Svyatoslav.

The liquidation of the Khazar Khaganate was of great foreign policy importance for Kievan Rus. First, the threat of an armed attack from the east was removed. Secondly, cities and fortresses that blocked trade routes were destroyed: Russia got the opportunity to conduct extensive trade with the East, waterways along the Don and Volga were opened. Thirdly, the tribes that were previously dependent on the Khazar Khaganate now fell under the influence of Kievan Rus, or were completely attached to it.

Svyatoslav began his campaign against the Khazars by entering the lands of the Vyatichi in 964. Most likely, there were no hostilities between the Russians and the Vyatichi: Svyatoslav was interested in a friendly rear for the period of the campaign in the lands of the Khazars. The chronicle also speaks in favor of this point of view, where there is no mention of the war with the Vyatichi: “And I went (Svyatoslav) to the Oka River and the Volga, and the Vyatichi climbed, and the Vyatichi said: “To whom do you give tribute?” They decide: “We give Kozar for a schlyag from the ral.” Svyatoslav spent about a year in the Vyatichi lands, of course, the Khazars did not receive the due tribute.

The following year, Svyatoslav fell upon the lands of the old allies of Khazaria - the Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Having defeated them, he now struck at the Khaganate itself: “Go Svyatoslav to the goats. Hearing the kozars, izidosha opposed with his prince Kagan, and stupishasya fought, and were fighting, overcoming Svyatoslav with a kozar and taking their city and White Vezhya. And victorious yasas and kasogs. Following Itil, which is most likely referred to in the annals as “their city”, and Sarkel (Belaya Vezha), the Russian army took Samkerts on the Taman Peninsula and Semender on the Terek.

The Arab chronicler Ibn-Khaukal tells that the inhabitants of the Volga and Azov regions asked that an agreement be concluded with them, and they would submit to the Russians. This fact suggests that the conquest of Khazaria was not a simple raid for the purpose of enrichment. Svyatoslav Igorevich sought to formalize relations with the top of the defeated Khazaria and Bulgaria, determine the nature of power in these lands and, with the help of an agreement, establish the dependence of this region on Kievan Rus.

In his "History" Leo the Deacon mentions the Cimmerian Bosporus (the region of modern Kerch) as the "fatherland" of the Russians, which belonged to them already under Igor. If we take into account this fact, as well as the fact that after the conquest of Khazaria, Svyatoslav founded the principality of Tmutarakan (on the Taman Peninsula), the main goal of the campaign against the kaganate becomes obvious. The influence of Kyiv in the Northern Black Sea region began to grow more and more. The lands of Russia have already come close to the Byzantine possessions.

Svyatoslav completed the campaign where it had begun - in the lands of the Vyatichi. Under 966, the chronicler reports: "Vyatichi defeat Svyatoslav, and pay tribute to them." It was now, when the Khazars were subjugated and the need for a friendly rear disappeared, that Svyatoslav finally seized power in the Vyatichi land and imposed Vyatichi tribute.

FOREIGN POLICY 966-968

The situation in the Northern Black Sea region and Bulgaria in 966-967.

After the defeat of the Khazaria and the strengthening of the influence of Kyiv in the Northern Black Sea region, the lands of Russia came close to the borders of Byzantium. There was a real threat to the dominance of the empire in the Crimea. If we turn to the works of the Arab chronicler Yahya of Antioch, we will find there a mention that the Byzantine emperor went on a campaign against the Bulgarians “and struck them and made peace with the Russians - and they were at war with him - and agreed with them to fight the Bulgarians and attack them." An open break in the peaceful relations between Bulgaria and Byzantium occurred in 966. Around the same time, Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas moved to the Bulgarian border and captured the border towns. But what kind of war with the Russians is Yahya of Antioch talking about? Most likely, there was a conflict in the Crimea, and the Russian army threatened Chersonese. Emperor Nikephoros II Phocas (963 - 969) could not allow the loss of Chersonese, the granary of the empire, as well as the main supplier of dried fish - the main food of the poor in Constantinople. An urgent peace with Russia was needed, moreover, the blow aimed at Chersonese had to be urgently redirected.

Mission Kalokir.

The war between the empire and the Bulgarians broke out again in 966. After the death of Tsar Simeon, who was replaced on the throne by his son Peter (927-969), Bulgaria staggered, the ruling circles split into two parties: anti-Byzantine and pro-Byzantine. Emperor Nicephorus took advantage of this by unleashing a war with Bulgaria. At the same time, Byzantium began preparing a diplomatic mission to Kyiv. In 967 such a mission was sent.

The embassy was headed by Kalokir, the son of the Chersonesos strategist. This man must have had excellent knowledge of the situation in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, which once again testifies that the Russian-Byzantine conflict in the Crimea, which threatened Chersonesus, did take place. In the capital, Kalokir was awarded the high rank of patrician and 15 centinaries (about 450 kg.) of gold were issued for transfer to the Russians. He was instructed to conclude an alliance with Svyatoslav for common military operations against the Bulgarians.

Svyatoslav Igorevich had two main directions of the policy of the first Kiev princes in foreign policy: eastern and southwestern. In the east, his main opponent was the Khazar Khaganate, in the southwest - Bulgaria.

The young prince, being about 25 years old, turned out to be an energetic commander. In 965, Svyatoslav began a campaign against the Khazars. Hearing about that, the Khazars went out to meet them, led by the kagan, and the battle began. Svyatoslav defeated the Khazars and took their cities. The Rus ascended the Dnieper to its upper reaches and dragged the boats to the Oka. Along the Oka and the Volga, Svyatoslav reached the capital of Khazaria, Itil.

Svyatoslav's allies were the Pechenegs and Guzes. The Pechenegs, supporters of Byzantium and natural enemies of the Khazars, came to the aid of Svyatoslav from the West, the Guzes - from the Yaik River, crossing the expanses of the Caspian Sea covered with dunes. The allies met safely at Itil.

In the besieged city, the Jews had nowhere to run, so they went out to fight Svyatoslav and were defeated. Svyatoslav also came to the Terek. There stood the second large city of the Khazar Jews - Semender, which had a quadrangular citadel, but it did not save the city. Svyatoslav defeated Semender and, taking horses, oxen, carts from the population, moved across the Don to Russia. Already on the way home, he took another Khazar fortress - Sarkel, located near the current village of Tsimlyanskaya. Sarkel was built by the Byzantines during their short friendship with Khazaria. In Sarkel, Svyatoslav met a garrison consisting of hired nomads. The prince won, destroyed the fortress, and renamed the city into Belaya Vezha. People from the Chernihiv land later settled there. The capture of Sarkel ended the victorious campaign of Svyatoslav against Khazaria.

As a result of the campaign of 964-965, Svyatoslav excluded the Volga, the middle course of the Terek and part of the Middle Don from the sphere of influence of the Jewish community. But not all military-political tasks were solved. The Russian prince captured the mouth of the Kuban River and the coast of the Sea of ​​Azov. The Russian Principality of Tmutarakan was formed on the Taman Peninsula, in Tmutarakan the Jewish population, under the name of the Khazars, still held its dominant positions and retained financial influence. However, the main achievement of the campaign, no doubt, was that Kievan Rus regained its independence. Shortly after the campaigns of Svyatoslav, the Khazar Khaganate ceased to exist as a state.

In 967 Svyatoslav went to the Danube and Bulgaria. He defeated the Bulgarians in battle, took 80 of their cities along the Danube, sat down to reign in Pereyaslavets, taking tribute from the Greeks.

The victorious campaigns of Svyatoslav alarmed the Byzantine emperor. He tried with all his might to turn the prince of Kiev into his ally, hoping to use the Russian squads in the fight against the Danube Bulgarians.

The results of the campaign of 964-965 could not but raise the authority of Russia in the eyes of the Byzantine ally, who tried with all his might to involve Svyatoslav in solving the foreign policy problems of the empire. The Byzantine government needed a person to negotiate with Svyatoslav. It turned out to be Kalokir - an energetic and ambitious person. He knew the language of the Slavs, their customs. For Byzantium, he concluded a profitable agreement with the Rus, which consisted in the capture of Bulgaria. However, Kalokir secretly dreamed of the imperial crown. He decided to rely on the army of the Rus and, having overthrown the old emperor Nicephorus II Fok, seize power in Constantinople. To the misfortune of Kalokir, his plan was revealed even under Phokas.

Fulfilling the agreement, in 968 the Kyiv flotilla landed at the mouth of the Danube, the Russians defeated the Bulgarian Tsar Peter and captured Bulgaria. Svyatoslav captured a number of Bulgarian settlements, and declared the city of Pereyaslavets the new capital. Such a turn of events was not included in the plans of Byzantium. And Foka ordered that the allies of Byzantium - the left-bank Pechenegs - attack Kyiv. Taking advantage of the fact that Svyatoslav was not in Kyiv, in 968 the Pechenegs came to Russian soil.

Olga locked herself in Kyiv with her grandchildren - Yaropolk, Oleg, Vladimir. The Pechenegs besieged the city with great force: there were countless of them around, and it was impossible not to leave the city, not to draw water, and people were exhausted from hunger and thirst. Then the people of Kiev sent a messenger to Svyatoslav with the words: “You, prince, are looking for a foreign land and take care of it, but you left your own. We were almost taken by the Pechenegs along with your mother and children. If you do not come and protect us, then we will not escape death. Don’t you feel sorry for your fatherland, your old mother and children?” Hearing these words, Svyatoslav with his retinue immediately saddled his horses and returned to Kyiv. He greeted his mother and children and lamented what had happened to them from the Pechenegs. After he gathered the soldiers, drove the Pechenegs into the field.

Svyatoslav, who abandoned everything in Bulgaria, found that he was not at all at home in Kiev, and in general he was "not pleased to sit in Kyiv." Svyatoslav soon declared to his mother and the boyars: “I don’t like Kyiv, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube: there is the middle of my land, everything good is brought there from all sides: from the Greeks - gold, fabrics, wines, various fruits, from the Czechs and Hungarians - silver and horses, from Russia - furs, honey, wax and slaves.

Olga did not want to let the prince go. She asked her son not to leave her, citing illness. The old princess soon died. Svyatoslav left his eldest son Yaropolk in Kyiv. He sent the second son, Oleg, to the Drevlyansk land. The third son, young Vladimir, was released to Novgorod. And he hastened to return to Bulgaria, to Pereyaslavets, where the situation also changed not in his favor.

Svyatoslav also spoke out against the Greeks. In 970 the war moved to Thrace. In the first battle, Svyatoslav defeated and went to Constantinople, capturing the cities. At Philippopolis, he ordered 20,000 prisoners to be impaled. Thus, he frightened the Bulgarians and forced them to obey him. Near Andrianople, the Russians met with the army of Varda Sklir and were defeated by him. But soon peace had to be made. Tzimiskes sent a message to Svyatoslav: "Don't go to the capital, take tribute as much as you want." Svyatoslav listened to him and took a huge tribute, gifts and returned to Pereyaslavl.

The Kyiv prince Svyatoslav devoted most of his life to foreign policy, developing it in military campaigns. The prince was almost not interested in domestic politics and state affairs. For this reason, he entrusted their conduct to his wise mother, Princess Olga, who, before her son ascended the throne, skillfully dealt with issues of domestic politics.

In 964, Prince Svyatoslav's military campaign against Khazaria begins. The road to it ran through the territory of the Vyatichi - Khazar tributaries. The prince forced them to pay tribute to Kievan Rus and only after the agreement moved forward to the Volga. The Bulgarians living on the banks of the river had a hard time. The prince's campaign against Volga Bulgaria was reflected in the plundering of many local cities and villages. In 965, Svyatoslav managed to win a major victory by capturing the city of Belaya Vezha. This campaign ended with victories over the Yas and Kosog tribes.

But the princely rest in his native land was not long. The ambassadors of the Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas, who soon arrived at Svyatoslav, asked for his military support against the Bulgarians living on the Danube lands. And this campaign was a success for Svyatoslav. Moreover, the Kiev prince liked the local lands so much that he thought about making Pereyaslavets the center of Kievan Rus.

The lands of the defeated Khazar Khaganate, which Svyatoslav had previously defeated and, blocking the path of nomads from Asia during this period, were flooded with the Pechenegs, who were generously paid for such "activities" by the emperor of Byzantium. In 968, the nomads came close to Kiev, while Prince Svyatoslav was on his next campaign. Princess Olga called for the help of the city governor Petich and the Pechenegs fled, deciding that the victorious warlike prince of Kyiv had returned. Some time later, Svyatoslav, who approached, drove the remnants of the Pechenegs out of the territory of Kievan Rus.

In 969, Princess Olga of Kyiv, who was in charge of all the internal political affairs of Russia, died. Along with this, persecution of Christians begins in the state, since there was no one to intercede in a pagan state with a pagan prince for them. Having shifted the occupation of Kiev onto the shoulders of Vladimir, Oleg and Yaropolk, Svyatoslav set off on a new military campaign against the Bulgarians.

The victory won in Bulgaria was not at all beneficial to Byzantium and the emperor sent messengers to the prince with rich gifts and a demand to leave the Bulgarian land, for which Svyatoslav offered to redeem the cities he had captured to the Greeks. This was followed by a war with Byzantium at the end of which Svyatoslav was killed.