Video lesson “The first Kiev princes. "Greek fire" - the secret weapon of the Byzantine Empire
Velev tied a piece of tinder to the birds, set it on fire and released the birds into the city. They flew to their nests and burned the city of the Drevlyans. Quickly fell. Olga imposed an exorbitant tribute on the surviving townspeople. For many years, the legend of the miraculous capture of the Drevlyansk fortress was passed down from generation to generation. The chronicler willingly included it in the Tale of Revenge. Historians pass over this episode in silence. It is not surprising - the chronicle version raises a number of questions .....
In the first half of 946, Princess Olga of Kyiv went on a campaign against the Drevlyans, who had killed her husband, Prince Igor, a year earlier. The troops took several Drevlyansk fortresses. But Iskorosten (Korosten), the city of Prince Mal on the river Uzh, could not be conquered on the move. The protracted siege decomposed the morale of the squad. The princess was also worried about the approaching autumn thaw. This prompted her to look for an extraordinary solution ...
Military stratagem
A wise and great woman began peace negotiations. Surprised by her softness, the Drevlyans asked: “What do you want from us? We are glad to give you honey and furs.” But she answered: “Now you have neither honey nor furs, so I ask you a little: give me from each yard three doves and three sparrows.” Having distributed to her soldiers one by a dove, one by a sparrow, she ordered to tie a small piece of tinder to each bird. And when it began to get dark, she ordered to set fire to the tinder and release the birds into the wild. They flew into their nests, and then dovecotes, cages, sheds and haylofts flared up. And there was no yard where it would not burn...
Quickly fell. Olga imposed an exorbitant tribute on the surviving townspeople. For many years, the legend of the miraculous capture of the Drevlyansk fortress was passed down from generation to generation. The chronicler willingly included it in the Tale of Revenge. Historians pass over this episode in silence. It is not surprising - the chronicle version raises a number of questions.
Why did Olga wait for the approach of autumn, and did not apply the “bird version” much earlier? Why were doves and sparrows released at nightfall? Why, finally, should a bird carrying fire fly headlong to its native nest?
What was hidden behind the mysterious burning birds? But what if Princess Olga used some mysterious weapon that had incredible power for those times? Is it possible?
Brahma Weapon
...A heated battle unfolded near the walls of the ancient city. The ringing of weapons and armor, the death groans of people and the neighing of defeated horses merged into one terrible cacophony. And in the middle of this raging sea of death, like moving cliffs, huge war elephants towered, crushing the doomed screaming with fear under them.
The scales fluctuated. The defending troops trembled. The enemy pressed them to the open gates of the city. There was one last resort. The ruler, once again surveying the battlefield, raised his hand, giving a sign to the priests. “Weapons of Brahma! Weapon of Brahma! - a reverent whisper swept among the close ones.
Several people dressed in black robes carried out of the temple a long pointed object - a huge iron arrow. It was carefully installed on a special stone pedestal with a long polished chute.
The priests knelt down and, loudly shouting sacred words, called on the god Brahma to accurately direct the weapon at the enemies.
The head priest was given a torch mounted on a long bamboo pole. He waited for everyone to leave the platform, and, hiding behind a stone ledge, he raised the torch to the iron arrow.
Like a thousand snakes, she hissed, like a thousand thousand hearths, she exhaled smoke and with a roar like thunder, she took off. In an instant, the chariots were on fire. People, horses, elephants lay defeated, burned by a terrible explosion ...
What's this? Another fantasy tale about a war on another planet? No, the events described took place here on Earth, apparently, almost three thousand years ago.
Historical monuments and annals of the past keep a mention of unusual weapons. Here is his description from the ancient Indian work "Mahabharata". “The sparkling projectile, possessing the radiance of fire, has been fired. A thick fog suddenly covered the army. All sides of the horizon were plunged into darkness. Evil whirlwinds arose. With a roar, the clouds rushed to the height of the sky ... It seemed that even the sun was spinning. The world, scorched by the heat of this weapon, was in a fever ... ". Impressive ancient story! And far from the only one.
Recipes of the ancient Greeks
... In 717, Theophanes in his "Chronography" spoke about the capture of the Sideron fortress, located in the mountain pass between Tsebelda and Sukhumi. Spafari Leo laid siege to the fortress, but the location and power of the fortifications did not allow it to be captured. Leo agreed with the defenders of the fortress, promising not to harm them, if only they would let him in with 30 soldiers. “But his words,” Feofan wrote, “Leo did not keep, but ordered his thirty companions:“ When we enter, seize the gate, and let everyone enter. As soon as this happened, the spafarius ordered to throw fire in the direction of the fortress. A great fire broke out, and the families began to go out, taking with them what they could carry from their property.
One of the eyewitnesses wrote that the incendiary mixture was thrown towards the enemy from special copper pipes. This sight caused horror and surprise of the enemy. The combustible mixture was applied to a metal spear launched by a giant sling. It flew with the speed of lightning and with a thunderous roar and was like a dragon with a pig's head. When the projectile reached the target, an explosion occurred, a cloud of acrid black smoke rose, after which a flame arose, spreading in all directions; if they tried to extinguish the flame with water, it flared up with renewed vigor ...
Most researchers attribute the appearance of Greek fire to the 7th century and associate it with a certain Kallinnikos from Heliopolis in Syria. For example, a certain Byzantine historian reports: “In the year 673, the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV found out about the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge two-deck ships equipped with Greek fire, and ships carrying siphons ... The Arabs were shocked, they fled in great fear.
The Byzantines carefully kept the secret of Greek fire, but in the 10th century in Russia they already knew about it ...
secret deal
In 941, Prince Igor of Kyiv went on a campaign against the Greeks. The Byzantine emperor Roman sent his troops to meet the Rus, led by Theophanes the Patrician. There was a collision. “... And of course, - the chronicler wrote, - the Russians won, but the Greeks began to fire on the Russian boats with pipes. And the vision was terrible. Russia, seeing the flames on itself, rushed into the sea water, wanting to take it away. Then a lot of Russian people and Greeks were burned and sunk ... ". The news of this defeat soon reached Russia. “When they came, they told about the former misfortune from the fire, but the Greeks, having it on their ships, let them go and burn the ships.”
Being in a hopeless situation under the walls of the Drevlyansk Iskorosten, Olga turned to Byzantium for help. That is why we had to wait so long. The ambassadors of the Kievan princess secretly arrived in Constantinople, concluded an agreement and received weapons. The agreement was not recorded anywhere, because it violated the law "forbidding the sale of weapons to barbarians."
... Deception, deceit, unsurpassed cruelty of the ruler did not go beyond the morality of that time. They are not condemned by the chroniclers, but on the contrary, they are glorified as the properties and advantages of higher wisdom.
As for the reasons for her cruel actions, they were caused not so much by a sense of revenge, but by the desire to establish herself as the head of the principality, to prove to everyone that she, Olga, can rule with a hand no less firm than that of male rulers.
"The Book of Fire, which serves to burn enemies" by Mark Grek became the first textbook for the training of missilemen. It detailed how to prepare an incendiary mixture and what to do with it later: “... take 1 part of rosin, 1 part of sulfur, 6 parts of saltpeter, dissolve in finely ground form in linseed or laurel oil, then put it in a copper pipe or in a wooden trunk. The rocket must be long, and the powder in it must be packed tightly. Both ends must be tightly tied with iron wire. The ignited charge immediately flies in any direction and destroys everything with fire.
The term "Greek fire" was not used in the Greek language, nor in the languages of the Muslim peoples, it arises from the moment when Western Christians became acquainted with it during the Crusades. The Byzantines and Arabs themselves called it differently: "liquid fire", "sea fire", "artificial fire" or "Roman fire". Let me remind you that the Byzantines called themselves "Romans", i.e. the Romans.
The invention of "Greek fire" is attributed to the Greek mechanic and architect Kalinnik, a native of Syria. In 673, he offered it to the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV Pogonatus (654-685) for use against the Arabs who were besieging Constantinople at that time.
"Greek fire" was used primarily in naval battles as an incendiary, and according to some reports, as an explosive.
The recipe for the mixture has not been preserved for certain, but according to fragmentary information from various sources, it can be assumed that it included oil with the addition of sulfur and nitrate. In the "Fire Book" of Mark the Greek, published in Constantinople at the end of the 13th century, the following composition of Greek fire is given: "1 part of rosin, 1 part of sulfur, 6 parts of saltpeter in a finely ground form, dissolve in linseed or laurel oil, then put in a pipe or into a wooden barrel and ignite it. The charge immediately flies in any direction and destroys everything with fire. It should be noted that this composition served only for the release of a fiery mixture in which an "unknown ingredient" was used. Some researchers have suggested that quicklime could be the missing ingredient. Asphalt, bitumen, phosphorus, etc. were proposed among other possible components.
It was impossible to extinguish the "Greek fire" with water; attempts to extinguish it with water only led to an increase in the combustion temperature. However, subsequently, means were found to combat the "Greek fire" with the help of sand and vinegar.
"Greek fire" was lighter than water and could burn on its surface, which gave the eyewitnesses the impression that the sea was on fire.
In 674 and 718 AD "Greek fire" destroyed the ships of the Arab fleet that besieged Constantinople. In 941, it was successfully used against the ships of the Rus during unsuccessful campaign Prince Igor of Kiev to Constantinople (Tsargrad). Preserved detailed description the use of "Greek fire" in the battle with the Pisan fleet off the island of Rhodes in 1103.
"Greek fire" was thrown out with the help of throwing pipes operating on the principle of a siphon, or a burning mixture in clay vessels was fired from a ballista or other throwing machine.
For throwing Greek fire, long poles were also used, mounted on special masts, as shown in the figure. 
The Byzantine princess and writer Anna Komnena (1083 - c. 1148) reports the following about the pipes or siphons installed on the Byzantine warships (dromons): "On the bow of each ship were the heads of lions or other land animals, made of bronze or iron and gilded, besides, they were so terrible that it was terrible to look at them; they arranged those heads in such a way that fire erupted from their open mouths, and this was done by soldiers with the help of mechanisms obedient to them.
The range of the Byzantine "flamethrower" probably did not exceed a few meters, which, however, made it possible to use it in a naval battle at close range or in the defense of fortresses against the wooden siege structures of the enemy.
Scheme of the siphon device for throwing "Greek fire" (reconstruction) 
Emperor Leo VI the Philosopher (870-912) writes about the use of "Greek fire" in naval combat. In addition, in his treatise "Tactics" he orders officers to use the recently invented hand pipes, and recommends spewing fire from them under the cover of iron shields.
Hand siphons are depicted in several miniatures. It is difficult to say anything definite about their device based on the images. Apparently, they were something like a spray gun, which used the energy of compressed air pumped with the help of bellows.
"Flamethrower" with a manual siphon during the siege of the city (Byzantine miniature) 
The composition of the "Greek fire" was a state secret, so even the recipe for making the mixture was not recorded. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (905 - 959) wrote to his son that he was obliged "first of all to direct all his attention to the liquid fire thrown out through pipes; and if they dare to ask you about this secret, as it often happened to me yourself, you must refuse and reject any prayers, pointing out that this fire was bestowed and explained by an angel to the great and holy Christian emperor Constantine.
Miniature of the Madrid copy of the "Chronicle" of John Skylitzes (XIII century) 
Although no state, except Byzantium, possessed the secret of "Greek fire", various imitations of it have been used by Muslims and crusaders since the time of the Crusades.
The use of an analogue of "Greek fire" in the defense of the fortress (medieval English miniature) 
The once formidable Byzantine navy gradually fell into disrepair, and the secret of true "Greek fire" may have been lost. In any case, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, he did not help the defenders of Constantinople in any way.
Experts assess the effectiveness of "Greek fire" differently. Some even consider it more of a psychological weapon. With the beginning of the mass use of gunpowder (XIV century), "Greek fire" and other combustible mixtures lost their military significance and were gradually forgotten.
The search for the secret of "Greek fire" was carried out by medieval alchemists, and then by many researchers, but did not give unambiguous results. Probably its exact composition will never be established.
Greek fire became the prototype of modern napalm mixtures and a flamethrower.
The flammable composition, which could not be extinguished with water, was known to the ancient Greeks. “To burn enemy ships, a mixture of ignited resin, sulfur, tow, incense and sawdust of a resinous tree is used,” Aeneas Tacticus wrote in his essay “On the Art of a Commander” in 350 BC. In 424 BC, a certain combustible substance was used in the land battle of Delia: the Greeks from a hollow log sprayed fire in the direction of the enemy. Unfortunately, like many discoveries of Antiquity, the secrets of this weapon were lost, and the liquid unquenchable fire had to be reinvented.
This was done in 673 by Kallinikos, or Kallinikos, a resident of Heliopolis captured by the Arabs in the territory of modern Lebanon. This mechanic fled to Byzantium and offered his services and his invention to Emperor Constantine IV. The historian Theophanes wrote that the vessels with the mixture invented by Kallinikos were thrown by catapults at the Arabs during the siege of Constantinople. The liquid flared up on contact with air, and no one could extinguish the fire. The Arabs fled in horror from the weapon, which received the name "Greek fire".
Siphon with Greek fire on a mobile siege tower. (Pinterest)
Possibly, Kallinikos also invented a device for throwing fire, called a siphon, or siphonophore. These copper tubes, painted to look like dragons, were installed on the high decks of dromons. Under the influence of compressed air from the bellows, they threw a stream of fire into enemy ships with a terrible roar. The range of these flamethrowers did not exceed thirty meters, but for several centuries the enemy ships were afraid to come close to the Byzantine battleships. Handling Greek fire required extreme caution. The chronicles mention many cases when the Byzantines themselves died in an unquenchable flame due to broken vessels with a secret mixture.
Armed with Greek fire, Byzantium became the mistress of the seas. In 722, a major victory was won over the Arabs. In 941, an unquenchable flame drove the boats of the Russian prince Igor Rurikovich away from Constantinople. The secret weapon did not lose its significance two centuries later, when it was used against Venetian ships with participants in the Fourth Crusade on board.
It is not surprising that the secret of making Greek fire was strictly guarded by the Byzantine emperors. Lez the Philosopher ordered the mixture to be made only in secret laboratories under heavy guard. Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus wrote in his instructions to his heir: “You should most of all take care of the Greek fire ... and if anyone dares to ask you for it, as we often asked ourselves, then reject these requests and answer that the fire was opened by the Angel to Constantine, the first emperor of the Christians. The great emperor, as a warning to his heirs, ordered a curse to be carved in the temple on the throne for anyone who dares to pass this discovery on to strangers ... ".
Terrible tales could not make Byzantium's competitors stop trying to discover the secret. In 1193, the Arab Saladan wrote: "Greek fire is" kerosene "(petroleum), sulfur, tar and tar." The recipe of the alchemist Vincetius (XIII century) is more detailed and exotic: “To get Greek fire, you need to take an equal amount of molten sulfur, tar, one fourth of opopanax (vegetable juice) and pigeon droppings; all this, well dried, is dissolved in turpentine or sulfuric acid, then placed in a strong closed glass vessel and heated for fifteen days in an oven. After that, the contents of the vessel should be distilled like wine alcohol and stored ready-made.
However, the mystery of Greek fire became known not thanks to scientific research, but because of a banal betrayal. In 1210, Emperor Alexei III Angel lost his throne and defected to the Konya sultan. He took care of the defector and made him commander of the army. Not surprisingly, just eight years later, crusader Oliver L'Ecolator testified that the Arabs used Greek fire against the crusaders during the siege of Damietta.
Alexei III Angel. (Pinterest)
Soon Greek fire ceased to be only Greek. The secret of its manufacture has become known to different peoples. The French historian Jean de Joinville, a member of the Seventh Crusade, personally came under fire during the Saracen assault on the fortifications of the crusaders: “The nature of Greek fire is this: its projectile is huge, like a vessel for vinegar, and the tail stretching behind looks like a giant spear. His flight was accompanied by a terrible noise, like thunder from heaven. The Greek fire in the air was like a dragon flying in the sky. Such a bright light emanated from it that it seemed that the sun had risen over the camp. The reason for this was the huge fiery mass and brilliance contained in it.
The Russian chronicles mention that the people of Vladimir and Novgorod, with the help of some kind of fire, enemy fortresses "set fire and there was a storm and a great smoke I will pull on these." Unquenchable flame was used by the Polovtsy, the Turks and the troops of Tamerlane. Greek fire ceased to be a secret weapon and lost its strategic importance. In the 14th century, he was almost never mentioned in the annals and chronicles. The last time Greek fire was used as a weapon was in 1453 during the capture of Constantinople. The historian Francis wrote that he was thrown at each other by both the Turks besieging the city and the defending Byzantines. At the same time, guns were also used on both sides, firing with conventional gunpowder. It was much more practical and safer than capricious liquid and quickly replaced Greek fire in military affairs.
Juan de Joinville. (Pinterest)
Only scientists have not lost interest in the self-igniting composition. In search of a recipe, they carefully studied the Byzantine chronicles. An entry made by Princess Anna Comnena was discovered, stating that the composition of the fire included only sulfur, resin and tree sap. Apparently, despite her noble birth, Anna was not privy to state secrets, and her recipe gave little to scientists. In January 1759, the French chemist and artillery commissar André Dupré announced that, after much research, he had discovered the secret of Greek fire. In Le Havre, with a huge gathering of people and in the presence of the king, tests were carried out. The catapult hurled a pot of resinous liquid at the sloop anchored in the sea, which immediately caught fire. The amazed Louis XV ordered all the papers relating to his discovery to be redeemed from Dupre and destroyed, hoping in this way to hide the traces dangerous weapon. Soon Dupre himself died under unclear circumstances. The recipe for Greek fire was again lost.
Disputes about the composition of medieval weapons continued into the 20th century. In 1937, the German chemist Stötbacher wrote in his book Gunpowder and Explosives that Greek fire consisted of "sulphur, salt, tar, asphalt and burnt lime". In 1960, the Englishman Partington, in his voluminous work The History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, suggested that the secret weapons of the Byzantines included light fractions of oil distillation, tar and sulfur. Furious disputes between him and his French colleagues were caused by the possible presence of saltpeter in the composition of the fire. Partington's opponents proved the presence of saltpeter by the fact that, according to the testimony of Arab chroniclers, it was possible to extinguish Greek fire only with the help of vinegar.
To date, the most likely version is the following composition of Greek fire: the crude product of a light fraction of oil distillation, various resins, vegetable oils, and possibly saltpeter or quicklime. This recipe vaguely resembles a primitive version of modern napalm and flamethrower charges. So today's flamethrowers, Molotov cocktail throwers and Game of Thrones characters, constantly throwing fireballs at each other, can consider the medieval inventor Kallinikos as their progenitor.
In the year 6449 (941). Igor went to the Greeks. And the Bulgarians sent a message to the tsar that the Russians were going to Tsargrad: ten thousand ships. And they came, and sailed, and began to devastate the country of Bithynia, and captivated the land along the Pontic Sea to Heraclia and to the Paphlagonian land, and captivated the whole country of Nicomedia, and burned the whole Court. And those who were captured - some were crucified, while in others, as a goal, they shot with arrows, wringing their hands back, tied them up and drove iron nails into their heads. Many of the holy churches were set on fire, and on both banks of the Court they seized a lot of wealth. When the soldiers came from the east - Panfir-Demestik with forty thousand, Phocas-Patricius with the Macedonians, Fedor the Stratilat with the Thracians, and with them the dignitary boyars, they surrounded Russia. The Russians, having consulted, went out against the Greeks with weapons, and in a fierce battle the Greeks barely defeated. The Russians, by evening, returned to their squad and at night, sitting in the boats, sailed away. Theophanes met them in the boats with fire and began to fire with pipes on the Russian boats. And a terrible miracle was seen. The Russians, seeing the flames, threw themselves into the sea water, trying to escape, and so the rest returned home. And, having come to their land, they told - each to their own - about what had happened and about the boat fire. “It’s like lightning from heaven,” they said, “the Greeks have in their place, and by releasing it, they set fire to us; that is why they did not overcome them.” Igor, on his return, began to gather a lot of soldiers and sent overseas to the Varangians, inviting them to the Greeks, again intending to go against them.
SO MUCH WONDERFUL FIRE, AS LIKE A HEAVENLY LIGHTNING
The chronicler knows the Russian tradition and the Greek news about Igor's campaign against Constantinople: in 941, the Russian prince went by sea to the shores of the Empire, the Bulgarians gave the news to Constantinople that Russia was coming; Protovestiary Theophanes was sent against her, who set Igor's boats on fire with Greek fire. Having suffered a defeat at sea, the Russians landed on the shores of Asia Minor and, as usual, greatly devastated them, but here they were caught and defeated by the patrician Barda and domestic John, rushed into the boats and set off to the shores of Thrace, were overtaken on the road, again defeated by Theophanes and with small the remnants returned back to Russia. At home, the fugitives justified themselves by saying that the Greeks had some kind of miraculous fire, like heavenly lightning, which they launched into Russian boats and burned them.
But on a dry path, what was the cause of their defeat? This reason can be discovered in the legend itself, from which it is clear that Igor's campaign was not like Oleg's enterprise, accomplished by the combined forces of many tribes; it was more like a raid by a gang, a small squad. The fact that there were few troops, and contemporaries attributed to this circumstance the cause of the failure, is shown by the words of the chronicler, who immediately after describing the campaign says that Igor, having come home, began to collect a large army, sent across the sea to hire the Varangians to go again to the Empire.
The chronicler places Igor's second campaign against the Greeks under the year 944; this time he says that Igor, like Oleg, gathered a lot of troops: the Varangians, Rus, Polyans, Slavs, Krivichi, Tivertsy, hired the Pechenegs, taking hostages from them, and went on a campaign on boats and horses to avenge the previous defeat . The people of Korsun sent a message to Emperor Roman: "Rus is advancing with countless ships, the ships have covered the whole sea." The Bulgarians also sent a message: “Rus is coming; hired and Pechenegs. Then, according to legend, the emperor sent his best boyars to Igor with a request: “Do not go, but take the tribute that Oleg took, I will give it to her.” The emperor also sent expensive fabrics and a lot of gold to the Pechenegs. Igor, having reached the Danube, convened a squad and began to think with her about the proposals of the emperor; The squad said: “If the king says so, then why do we need more? Without fighting, let's take gold, silver and curtains! How do you know who wins, us or them? After all, it is impossible to agree with the sea in advance, we do not walk on land, but in the depths of the sea, one death to all. Igor obeyed the squad, ordered the Pechenegs to fight the Bulgarian land, took gold and curtains from the Greeks for himself and for the whole army, and went back to Kyiv. In the following year, 945, an agreement was concluded with the Greeks, also, apparently, to confirm the brief and, perhaps, verbal efforts concluded immediately after the end of the campaign.
Kyiv - CAPITAL, RULE - IGOR
In Igor's agreement with the Greeks, we read, among other things, that the Russian Grand Duke and his boyars can annually send as many ships to the great Greek kings as they want, with ambassadors and guests, i.e. with their own clerks and with free Russian merchants. This story of the Byzantine emperor clearly shows us the close connection between the annual turnover of the political and economic life of Russia. The tribute that the Kyiv prince collected as a ruler was at the same time the material of his trade turnover: having become a sovereign, like a koning, he, like a Varangian, did not cease to be an armed merchant. He shared tribute with his retinue, which served him as an instrument of government, constituted the government class. This class acted as the main lever, in both ways, both political and economic: in winter it ruled, walked among people, begged, and in summer it traded in what it collected during the winter. In the same story, Constantine vividly outlines the centralizing significance of Kyiv as the center of the political and economic life of the Russian land. Russia, the government class headed by the prince, with its overseas trade turnover supported the ship trade in the Slavic population of the entire Dnieper basin, which found a market for itself at the spring fair of one-trees near Kiev, and every spring it pulled merchant boats here from different corners of the country along the Greek-Varangian route with the goods of forest hunters and beekeepers. Through such a complex economic cycle, a silver Arab dirhem or a gold clasp of Byzantine work fell from Baghdad or Constantinople to the banks of the Oka or Vazuza, where archaeologists find them.
swore by Perun
It is remarkable that the Varangian (Germanic) mythology did not have any influence on the Slavic, despite the political domination of the Varangians; it was so for the reason that the pagan beliefs of the Varangians were neither clearer nor stronger than the Slavic ones: the Varangians very easily changed their paganism to the Slavic cult if they did not accept Greek Christianity. Prince Igor, a Varangian by origin, and his Varangian squad already swore by the Slavic Perun and worshiped his idol.
"DO NOT GO, BUT TAKE A TRIBUTE"
One of the reasons for the catastrophic defeat of "Tsar" Helg and Prince Igor in 941 was that they could not find allies for the war with Byzantium. Khazaria was absorbed in the struggle against the Pechenegs and could not provide effective assistance to the Rus.
In 944 Prince Igor of Kyiv undertook a second campaign against Constantinople. The Kyiv chronicler did not find any mention of this enterprise in Byzantine sources, and in order to describe a new military expedition, he had to "paraphrase" the story of the first campaign.
Igor failed to take the Greeks by surprise. The Korsunians and Bulgarians managed to warn Constantinople of the danger. The emperor sent “the best boyars” to Igor, imploring him: “Don’t go, but take tribute, Oleg had the south, I’ll give it to that tribute.” Taking advantage of this, Igor accepted the tribute and left "in his own way." The chronicler was sure that the Greeks were frightened by the power of the Russian fleet, for Igor's ships covered the entire sea "scissorless". In fact, the Byzantines were worried not so much by the fleet of the Rus, the recent defeat of which they did not forget, but by Igor's alliance with the Pecheneg horde. The pastures of the Pecheneg Horde spread over a vast area from the Lower Don to the Dnieper. The Pechenegs became the dominant force in the Black Sea region. According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the attacks of the Pechenegs deprived the Rus of the opportunity to fight with Byzantium. The peace between the Pechenegs and the Rus was fraught with a threat to the empire.
Preparing for a war with Byzantium, the Kyiv prince "hired" the Pechenegs, i.e. sent rich gifts to their leaders, and took hostages from them. Having received tribute from the emperor, the Rus sailed to the east, but first Igor "ordered the Pechenegs to fight the Bulgarian land." The Pechenegs were pushed to the war against the Bulgarians, perhaps not only by the Rus, but also by the Greeks. Byzantium did not give up its intention to weaken Bulgaria and again subjugate it to its power. Having completed hostilities, the Russians and Greeks exchanged embassies and concluded a peace treaty. It follows from the agreement that the sphere of special interests of Byzantium and Russia was the Crimea. The situation on the Crimean peninsula was determined by two factors: the long-standing Byzantine-Khazar conflict and the emergence of a Norman principality at the junction of Byzantine and Khazar possessions. Chersonese (Korsun) remained the main stronghold of the empire in the Crimea. It was forbidden for a Russian prince to "have volosts", i.e., to seize the possessions of the Khazars in the Crimea. Moreover, the treaty obliged the Russian prince to fight ("let him fight") with the enemies of Byzantium in the Crimea. If “that country” (the Khazar possessions) did not submit, in this case the emperor promised to send his troops to help the Rus. In fact, Byzantium set the goal of expelling the Khazars from the Crimea with the hands of the Rus, and then dividing them from the possession. The agreement was implemented, albeit with a delay of more than half a century. The Kiev principality got Tmutarakan with the cities of Tamatarkha and Kerch, and Byzantium conquered the last possessions of the Khazars around Surozh. At the same time, King Sfeng, the uncle of the Kiev prince, provided direct assistance to the Byzantines ...
Peace treaties with the Greeks created favorable conditions for the development of trade and diplomatic relations between Kievan Rus and Byzantium. Russ received the right to equip any number of ships and trade in the markets of Constantinople. Oleg had to agree that the Russians, no matter how many of them came to Byzantium, have the right to enter the service in the imperial army without any permission from the Kiev prince ...
The peace treaties created the conditions for the penetration of Christian ideas into Russia. At the conclusion of the treaty in 911, there was not a single Christian among Oleg's ambassadors. The Rus sealed the “haratya” with an oath to Perun. In 944, in addition to pagan Rus, Christian Rus also participated in negotiations with the Greeks. The Byzantines singled them out, giving them the right to be the first to take the oath and taking them to the "cathedral church" - St. Sophia Cathedral.
The study of the text of the treaty allowed M. D. Priselkov to assume that already under Igor, power in Kyiv actually belonged to the Christian party, to which the prince himself belonged, and that negotiations in Constantinople led to the development of conditions for the establishment of a new faith in Kyiv. This assumption cannot be reconciled with the source. One of the important articles of the treaty of 944 read: “If a Khrestian kills a Rusyn, or a Rusyn Christian,” etc. The article certifies that the Rusyns belong to the pagan faith. Russian ambassadors lived in Constantinople for a long time: they had to sell the goods they brought. The Greeks used this circumstance to convert some of them to Christianity... The agreement of 944 drawn up by experienced Byzantine diplomats provided for the possibility of adopting Christianity by the "princes" who remained during the negotiations in Kyiv. The final formula read: “And to transgress this (agreement - R. S.) from our country (Rus. - R. S.), whether it is a prince, whether someone is baptized, whether they are not baptized, but they do not have help from God .. .»; who violated the agreement "let there be an oath from God and from Perun."
Skrynnikov R.G. Old Russian state
THE TOP OF OLD RUSSIAN DIPLOMACY
But what an amazing thing! This time, Russia insisted - and it is difficult to find another word here - for the appearance of Byzantine ambassadors in Kyiv. The period of discrimination against the northern “barbarians” has ended, who, despite their high-profile victories, obediently wandered to Constantinople for negotiations and here, under the vigilant gaze of the Byzantine clerks, formulated their contractual requirements, put their speeches on paper, diligently translated diplomatic stereotypes unfamiliar to them from Greek, and then they gazed in fascination at the magnificence of the temples and palaces of Constantinople.
Now the Byzantine ambassadors had to come to Kyiv for the first talks, and it is difficult to overestimate the importance and prestige of the agreement reached. …
In essence, a tangle of the entire Eastern European policy of those days was unwound here, in which Russia, Byzantium, Bulgaria, Hungary, the Pechenegs and, possibly, Khazaria were involved. Negotiations took place here, new diplomatic stereotypes were developed, the foundation was laid for a new long-term agreement with the empire, which was supposed to regulate relations between countries, reconcile or, at least, smooth out the contradictions between them ...
And then the Russian ambassadors moved to Constantinople.
It was a big embassy. Gone are the days when the five Russian ambassadors opposed the entire Byzantine diplomatic routine. Now a prestigious representation of a powerful state was sent to Constantinople, consisting of 51 people - 25 ambassadors and 26 merchants. They were accompanied by armed guards, shipbuilders ...
The title of the Russian Grand Duke Igor sounded differently in the new treaty. The epithet “bright” was lost and disappeared somewhere, which the Byzantine clerks awarded Oleg with such far from naive calculation. In Kyiv, apparently, they quickly figured out what was happening and realized in what unenviable position he put the Kiev prince. Now, in the treaty of 944, this title is not present, but Igor is referred to here as in his homeland - "the Grand Duke of Russia." True, sometimes in articles, so to speak, in the working order, the concepts of "grand prince" and "prince" are also used. And yet it is quite obvious that Russia also tried to achieve a change here and insisted on the title that did not infringe on her state dignity, although, of course, he was still far from such heights as "king" and emperor "...
Russia, step by step, slowly and stubbornly won diplomatic positions for itself. But this was most clearly reflected in the procedure for signing and approving the treaty, as stated in the treaty. This text is so remarkable that it is tempting to quote it in its entirety...
For the first time we see that the treaty was signed by the Byzantine emperors, for the first time the Byzantine side was instructed by the treaty to send its representatives back to Kyiv in order to take an oath on the treaty by the Russian Grand Duke and his husbands. For the first time, Russia and Byzantium assume equal obligations regarding the approval of the treaty. Thus, from the beginning of the development of a new diplomatic document until the very end of this work, Russia was on an equal footing with the empire, and this itself was already a remarkable phenomenon in the history of Eastern Europe.
And the treaty itself, which both sides worked out with such care, became an extraordinary event. The diplomacy of that time does not know a document of a larger scale, more detailed, embracing economic, political, and military-allied relations between countries.
A. Zorich
"Greek fire" is one of the most attractive and exciting mysteries of the Middle Ages. This mysterious weapon, which possessed amazing efficiency, was in service with Byzantium and for several centuries remained the monopoly of the mighty Mediterranean empire.
As a number of sources allow us to judge, it was the "Greek fire" that guaranteed the strategic advantage of the Byzantine fleet over the naval armadas of all dangerous rivals of this Orthodox superpower of the Middle Ages.And since the specific geographical location the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople, standing right on the Bosphorus - implied a special role for naval theaters of military operations both for offensive and for defense, then we can say that the "Greek fire" served for several centuries as a kind of "nuclear deterrence force", preserving the geopolitical status quo throughout the Eastern Mediterranean until the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204.
So, what is "Greek fire"? Let's go back to history.
The first reliable case of ejection of an incendiary composition from a pipe was recorded at the Battle of Delia (424 BC) between the Athenians and the Boeotians. More precisely, not in the battle itself, but during the assault by the Boeotians of the city of Delium, in which the Athenians took refuge.
The pipe used by the Boeotians was a hollow log, and the combustible liquid was presumably a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil. The mixture was thrown out of the chimney with enough force to force the Delian garrison to flee from the fire and thus ensure the success of the Boeotian warriors in storming the fortress wall.
Rice. 1. Antique flamethrower with forced air injection (reconstruction).
1 - the mouth of the fire tube; 2 - brazier
3 - damper for deflecting the air jet; 4 - wheeled cart;
5 - a wooden pipe fastened with iron hoops for forcing an air flow;
6 - shield for servants; 7 - furs; 8 - bellows handles
In the Hellenistic era, a flamethrower was invented (see the figure above), which, however, did not throw a combustible composition, but a pure flame interspersed with sparks and coals. As is clear from the captions to the drawing, fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier. Then, with the help of bellows, air began to be pumped, after which, with a deafening and terrible roar, flames burst from the muzzle. Most likely, the range of this device was small - 5-10 meters.
However, in some situations, this modest range does not seem so ridiculous. For example, in a naval battle, when ships converge to board the board, or during a sortie besieged against the enemy's wooden siege works.
A warrior with a hand-held flamethrower siphon.
From the Vatican manuscript of "Polyorcetics" by Heron of Byzantium
(Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1605). IX-XI centuries
The real "Greek fire" appears in the early Middle Ages. It was invented by Kallinikos, a Syrian scientist and engineer, a refugee from Heliopolis (modern Baalbek in Lebanon). Byzantine sources indicate the exact date of the invention of "Greek fire": 673 AD.
"Liquid fire" erupted from the siphons. The combustible mixture burned even on the surface of the water.
"Greek fire" was a powerful argument in naval battles, since it is precisely the crowded squadrons of wooden ships that make an excellent target for an incendiary mixture. Both Greek and Arabic sources unanimously declare that the effect of "Greek fire" was simply stunning.
The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Commonly referred to as substances such as oil, various oils, combustible resins, sulfur, asphalt and - a must! - some "secret component". The most adequate option seems to be a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites when in contact with water, and any viscous carriers like oil or asphalt.
For the first time pipes with "Greek fire" were installed and tested on dromons - the main class of Byzantine warships. With the help of "Greek fire" two large Arab invasion fleets were destroyed.
The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: "In the year 673, the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV learned of the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-deck ships equipped with Greek fire, and ship-carriers of siphons ... The Arabs were shocked... They fled in great fear."
The second attempt was made by the Arabs in 717-718.
"The emperor prepared fire-bearing siphons and placed them on board one- and two-deck ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Blessed Mother, the enemy was utterly defeated."
byzantine ship,
armed with "Greek fire", attacks the enemy.
Miniature from the "Chronicle" of John Skylitzes (MS Graecus Vitr. 26-2). 12th century
Madrid, Spanish National Library
Arabic ship.
Miniature from the manuscript "Maqamat"
(collection of picaresque stories)
Arab writer Al-Hariri. 1237
BNF, Paris
Arabic ship
from another list "Maqamat" Al-Hariri. OK. 1225-35
Leningrad Branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Later, in the 10th century, the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenet described this event as follows: "Someone Kallinikos, who ran to the Romans from Heliopolis, prepared liquid fire thrown out of the siphons, having burned the Saracen fleet at Cyzicus, the Romans won."
Another Byzantine emperor, Leo VI the Philosopher, gives the following description of Greek fire: “We have various means, both old and new, to destroy enemy ships and people fighting on them. This is fire prepared for siphons, from which it rushes with thunderous noise and smoke, burning the ships to which we direct it.
The destruction of the Arab fleet with the help of "Greek fire"
under the walls of Constantinople in 718 Modern reconstruction.
There is no doubt that over time, the Arabs realized that the psychological impact of Greek fire is much stronger than its real damaging ability. It is enough to maintain a distance of about 40-50 m from the Byzantine ships. Which was done. However, "do not approach" in the absence of effective means defeat means "do not fight." And if on land, in Syria and Asia Minor, the Byzantines suffered from the Arabs one defeat after another, then thanks to the fire-bearing ships, the Christians managed to hold Constantinople and Greece for many centuries.
A number of other precedents are also known for the successful use of "liquid fire" by the Byzantines to defend their sea frontiers.
In 872, they burned 20 Cretan ships (more precisely, the ships were Arab, but operated from captured Crete). In 882, the fire-bearing Byzantine ships (helandii) again defeated the Arab fleet.
It should also be noted that the Byzantines successfully used "Greek fire" not only against the Arabs, but also against the Rus. In particular, in 941, with the help of this secret weapon, a victory was won over the fleet of Prince Igor, who approached Constantinople directly.
A detailed story about this naval battle was left by the historian Liutprand of Cremona:
Roman [the Byzantine emperor] ordered the shipbuilders to come to him, and said to them: “Now go and immediately equip those helands that are left [at home]. But place a device for throwing fire not only at the bow, but also at the stern and on both sides.
So, when helandia were equipped according to his order, he put in them the most experienced men and ordered them to go towards King Igor. They set sail; seeing them at sea, King Igor ordered his army to take them alive and not kill them. But the good and merciful Lord, desiring not only to protect those who honor Him, worship Him, pray to Him, but also to honor them with victory, tamed the winds, thereby calming the sea; for otherwise it would have been difficult for the Greeks to throw fire.
So, having taken a position in the middle of the Russian [troop], they [began] throwing fire in all directions. The Russians, seeing this, immediately began to rush from the ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn in the fire. Some, weighed down with chain mail and helmets, immediately went to the bottom of the sea, and they were no longer seen, while others, having swum, continued to burn even in the water; no one was saved that day if he did not manage to run to the shore. After all, the ships of the Russians, due to their small size, also swim in shallow water, which the Greek Helandia cannot because of their deep draft.
Historian Georgiy Amartol adds that the defeat of Igor after the attack of the fire-bearing helands was completed by a flotilla of other Byzantine warships: dromons and triremes.
Based on this valuable recognition, one can make an assumption about the organizational structure of the Byzantine fleet of the 10th century. Specialized ships - helandia - carried siphons for throwing "Greek fire", since, presumably, they were considered less valuable (than dromons and triremes), but more structurally adapted for this function.
While the cruisers and battleships of the Byzantine fleet were dromons and triremes - which fought the enemy in a manner classic for the entire era of pre-powder sailing and rowing fleets. That is, by ramming, shelling with various projectiles from the throwing machines on board and, if necessary, boarding, for which they had sufficiently strong detachments of fighters.
Byzantine dromon.
Modern model
Byzantine dromon.
Modern art reconstruction,
on which the above model is made
Later, the Byzantines used "Greek fire" against the Rus at least once more, during the Danube campaign of Prince Svyatoslav, son of Igor ("Sfendoslav, son of Ingor" by the historian Leo the Deacon). During the struggle for the Bulgarian fortress Dorostol on the Danube, the Byzantines blocked the actions of Svyatoslav's fleet with the help of fire-bearing ships.
Here is how Leo the Deacon describes this episode: “In the meantime, fire-bearing triremes and food ships of the Romans appeared sailing along the Istra. heard from the old men of their people that by this very "Median fire" the Romans reduced to ashes on the Euxine Sea the huge fleet of Ingor, the father of Sfendoslav. Therefore, they quickly gathered their canoes and brought them to the city wall in the place where the flowing Istres goes around one of sides of Doristol. But the fiery ships lay in wait for the Scythians from all sides, so that they could not slip away on boats to their land. "
The Byzantines also used the Greek "fire" in the defense of fortresses. So, on one of the miniatures of the "Chronicle" by Georgy Amartol from the Tver list (beginning of the 14th century), stored in the Moscow State Library named after V.I. Lenin, you can see the image of a warrior with a fire-throwing siphon in his hands (top left).
Siege of Rome by the Galatians.
"Chronicles" of Georgy Amartol from the Tver list (beginning of the 14th century).
Moscow State Library named after V.I. Lenin.
"Greek fire" was also used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). Which, however, did not save Constantinople - it was taken by the crusaders and subjected to monstrous devastation.
The secret of making Greek fire was kept in strict secrecy, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was lost.
The last mention of the use of Greek fire refers to the siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II the Conqueror: Greek fire was then used by both the Byzantines and the Turks.
After the start of the mass use of gunpowder-based firearms, Greek fire lost its military significance, its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.