What is redshift. Universe expansion and redshift
redshift
an increase in the wavelengths of the lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of the lines towards the red part of the spectrum) compared to the lines of the reference spectra. Redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and its receiver (observer) increases (see Doppler effect) or when the source is in a strong gravitational field (gravitational redshift). In astronomy, the largest redshift is observed in the spectra of distant extragalactic objects (galaxies and quasars) and is considered as a consequence of the cosmological expansion of the Universe.
Redshift
lowering the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, one of the manifestations of the Doppler effect. Name "K. with." due to the fact that in the visible part of the spectrum, as a result of this phenomenon, the lines are shifted to its red end; K. s. observed in radiation of any other frequencies, for example, in the radio range. The opposite effect associated with increasing frequencies is called blue (or violet) shift. Most often, the term "K. with." is used to designate two phenomena—the cosmological cosmological s. and gravitational K. s.
Cosmological (metagalactic) K. s. called the decrease in radiation frequencies observed for all distant sources (galaxies, quasars), indicating the distance of these sources from each other and, in particular, from our Galaxy, i.e., about the non-stationarity (expansion) of the Metagalaxy. K. s. for galaxies was discovered by the American astronomer W. Slifer in 1912-14; in 1929 E. Hubble discovered that K. s. for distant galaxies it is greater than for nearby ones, and increases approximately in proportion to the distance (K. s. law, or Hubble's law). Various explanations for the observed shift of spectral lines have been proposed. Such, for example, is the hypothesis of the decay of light quanta over a time of millions and billions of years, during which the light from distant sources reaches the earthly observer; according to this hypothesis, the energy decreases during decay, which is also the reason for the change in the radiation frequency. However, this hypothesis is not supported by observations. In particular, K. s. in different parts of the spectrum of the same source, within the framework of the hypothesis, should be different. Meanwhile, all observational data indicate that K. s. does not depend on frequency, the relative change in frequency z = (n0≈ n)/n0 is exactly the same for all radiation frequencies not only in the optical, but also in the radio range of a given source (n0 ≈ the frequency of a certain line in the source spectrum, n ≈ the frequency of the same line, registered by the receiver; n In the theory of relativity, Doppler K. s. is considered as a result of the slowing down of the flow of time in a moving frame of reference (the effect of the special theory of relativity). If the velocity of the source system relative to the receiver system is u (in the case of metagalactic spacecraft, u ≈ this is the radial velocity), then ═(c ≈ the speed of light in vacuum) and according to the observed K. s. it is easy to determine the radial velocity of the source: . It follows from this equation that at z ╝ ¥ the speed v approaches the speed of light, always remaining less than it (v< с). При скорости v, намного меньшей скорости света (u << с), формула упрощается: u » cz. Закон Хаббла в этом случае записывается в форме u = cz = Hr (r ≈ расстояние, Н ≈ постоянная Хаббла). Для определения расстояний до внегалактических объектов по этой формуле нужно знать численное значение постоянной Хаббла Н. Знание этой постоянной очень важно и для космологии: с ней связан т. н. возраст Вселенной. Up until the 50s. 20th century extragalactic distances (measurement of which, of course, is associated with great difficulties) were greatly underestimated, in connection with which the value of H determined from these distances turned out to be greatly overestimated. In the early 70s. 20th century for the Hubble constant, the value H = 53 ╠ 5 (km/sec)/Mgps is accepted, the reciprocal value is T = 1/H = 18 billion years. Photographing the spectra of weak (distant) sources for measuring CV, even when using the largest instruments and sensitive photographic plates, requires favorable observation conditions and long exposures. For galaxies, displacements z » 0.2 are measured with confidence, corresponding to a velocity u » 60,000 km/sec and a distance of more than 1 billion ps. At such speeds and distances, Hubble's law is applicable in its simplest form (the error is about 10%, i.e., the same as the error in determining H). Quasars are, on average, a hundred times brighter than galaxies and, therefore, can be observed at distances ten times greater (if space is Euclidean). For quasars, z » 2 and more are indeed registered. With displacements z = 2, the speed is u » 0.8×s = 240,000 km/s. At such velocities, specific cosmological effects already come into play ≈ non-stationarity and curvature of space ≈ time; in particular, the concept of a single unambiguous distance becomes inapplicable (one of the distances ≈ the distance along the K. s. ≈ here, obviously, is r = ulH = 4.5 billion ps). K. s. testifies to the expansion of the entire part of the universe accessible to observations; this phenomenon is commonly referred to as the expansion of the (astronomical) universe. Gravitational K. with. is a consequence of the slowing down of the pace of time and is due to the gravitational field (the effect of the general theory of relativity). This phenomenon (also called the Einstein effect, the generalized Doppler effect) was predicted by A. Einstein in 1911, and was observed beginning in 1919, first in the radiation of the Sun and then in some other stars. Gravitational K. with. it is customary to characterize the conditional velocity u, which is formally calculated using the same formulas as in the cases of cosmological cosmological s. Conditional velocity values: for the Sun u = 0.6 km/sec, for the dense star Sirius B u = 20 km/sec. In 1959, for the first time, it was possible to measure the gravitational force due to the Earth's gravitational field, which is very small: u = 7.5 × 10-5 cm/sec (see Mössbauer effect). In some cases (for example, during a gravitational collapse), coexistence should be observed. both types (in the form of a total effect). Lit.: L. D. Landau, E. M. Lifshits, Field Theory, 4th ed., M., 1962, ╖ 89, 107; Observational foundations of cosmology, trans. from English, M., 1965. G. I. Naan. Redshift
Redshift- shift of spectral lines of chemical elements to the red side. This phenomenon may be an expression of the Doppler effect or gravitational redshift, or a combination of both. The shift of spectral lines to the violet side is called the blue shift. For the first time, the shift of spectral lines in the spectra of stars was described by the French physicist Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848, and he proposed the Doppler effect caused by the radial velocity of the star to explain the shift. Redshift: History and Modernity Since individual spectral lines of atomic radiation are practically monochromatic waves, V. Slifer also proposed an interpretation of his observations based on the Doppler effect for sound waves. In which the amount of frequency offset depends on the speed of the relative movement of the transmitter. It turned out that the spectral lines of 40 nebulae obtained by V. Slifer have a red shift and the lines of only one nebula (Andromeda) had a blue shift. Based on the data obtained, it was concluded that the nebulae are moving away from us, and at rather high speeds of the order of hundreds of kilometers per second. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, science was dominated by the idea that small nebulae in the sky were gaseous nebulae on the outskirts of the comprehensive star system of the Milky Way. V. Slifer, in full accordance with the ideas of his time, considered, for example, the spectrum of the Andromeda nebula, a reflection of the light of the central star. A significant contribution to the new paradigm, according to which gaseous nebulae are distant galaxies, was made by H. Leavitt, E. Hertzschrung and, of course, E. Hubble. In 1908, H. Leavitt discovered variable stars and determined the periods of some of them in the Small Magellanic Cloud. E Hertzsprung in 1913 identified the variable stars in the MMO with the Cepheids known in our galaxy. A little later (in the middle of the 20s) E. Hubble found 36 Cepheids in the Andromeda nebula, recalculated the distance using the period-luminosity dependence and got a new galaxy "Andromeda nebula". After 10 years, the distances to 150 galaxies (former nebulae) were known. In the course of research, E. Hubble discovered that the farther the galaxy is from us, the greater the redshift and, therefore, the greater the speed it flies away from the Earth. Based on the data on radial velocities and distances to galaxies, a new law was discovered, which showed that the equality Z = kR is fulfilled with a ten percent error, where Z is the redshift value, defined as the ratio of the increment of the wavelength (frequency) of any spectral lines of atoms of the galaxy, in relation to the spectral lines of atoms located on Earth; k = H/C is the coefficient of proportionality; H is the Hubble constant found from astronomical observations, C is the speed of light in vacuum; R is the distance to the galaxy. Some galaxies also have a slight blueshift - mostly these are the closest star systems to us. It looks like it's time to illustrate with examples - what is the relationship between the redshift z and astronomical distances postulated by the Doppler effect (at the value of the Hubble constant H = 70 km / s) the redshift z for astronomical distances of about 3 million light years will be ~ 0.00023 , for astronomical distances of 3 billion light years it will be ~ 0.23 and for astro distances of 10 million light years it will be ~ 0.7. Within the framework of E. Hubble's law, there is also an imaginary sphere on which the takeoff speed is equal to the speed of light, which bears the name of the discoverer - E. Hubble. More recently, it was believed that galaxies in the universe are moving away from us at a speed not exceeding the speed of light, and formula (1) according to the COP can only be used when Z>> Z^2 with reference to the special theory of relativity (SRT), according to which Z tends to infinity as the speed of the galaxy approaches the speed of light. But after the publication of the results of a detailed study of the radiation of type Ia supernovae (late 20th century), today a significant number of cosmologists believe that distant galaxies and extragalactic objects with a redshift Z>1 are moving away from the Earth at a relatively superluminal speed. Estimates of the "critical distance" to such galaxies exceed 14 billion light years. At the same time, it should be noted that in some encyclopedias the age of the universe is today estimated at 13 + 0.7 billion years. We can only say with certainty that the problem of exceeding the speed of light for distant galaxies, quasars, gamma-ray bursts definitely exists today. AT last years in the field of view of astronomers were objects with a redshift of Z ~ 10. The Hubble formula gives distances for such displacements, to put it mildly, on the order of the size of the entire observable universe. In some cases, this radiation should go to us longer than the time of its existence. For objects with such large displacements, the explanation of the cause of the displacement by the Doppler effect is contrary to common sense. It is interesting that the discoverer of the law relating the magnitude of the redshift to the astro distance E. Hubble, who worked hard in the field of creating a new map of the starry sky and measured the distances and redshift to many galaxies; until the end of his life he was skeptical about the explanation of his results - the Doppler effect and the expansion of the universe. His criticism of both the interpretation of W. de Sitter and the hypothesis of F. Zwicky is known. Until the end of his life (1953), Hubble apparently did not decide for himself whether the redshift speaks of the expansion of the Universe, or whether it is due to "some new principle of nature." He probably considered the basis of the regularity - galaxies at greater distances from us have a greater redshift. Perhaps the classic considered the redshift, a consequence of the influence of the three-dimensionality of space on the propagation of radiation, in which the wavelength decreases linearly with distance; perhaps he believed that there are no idealistic waves whose propagation would not be accompanied by energy dissipation, this is not known for sure. Alternative hypotheses The gravitational attraction of light from a galaxy or star. A special case of this effect can be a black hole, when a photon flies at a distance exceeding the event horizon. Light quanta turn red when they propagate from a region of a larger absolute value of the gravitational potential to a smaller one, i.e., they leave a strong gravitational field. Shift of spectral lines of light quanta in the electromagnetic environment (atomic, molecular space….) Both of the above mechanisms of shifting to the long-wavelength region are considered valid in their field of action and can probably be implemented in practice. But they also have well-known drawbacks: according to the first mechanism, the effect is quite small and local, according to the second version, scattering by atoms depends on the wavelength, and due to the influence of a change in direction during scattering, it should look blurry. A number of hypotheses are also original and, one might say, exotic, I will give the 2 most interesting ones in my opinion The Ritz effect, according to which the speed of light is vectorially added to the speed of the source, and the wavelength of light will increase as it moves. For such an effect, the f-la is valid: t "/t \u003d 1 + La / c 2 where the period t" between the arrival of two pulses or waves of light differs from the period t of their emission by the source, the stronger the distance L and the radial acceleration a of the light source . Usually La/c2 is a hypothesis about the quantum nature of the Hubble constant, by which the frequency of a photon decreases in one oscillation period, regardless of the wavelength. Even a photon energy dissipation quantum for one oscillation period is introduced: E T = hH 0 = 1.6·10-51 J, where h is Planck's constant; and the maximum number of oscillations that a photon can make in its lifetime: N = E/E T = hv/hH 0 = v/H 0 , where E is the photon energy. AT various variations there is today an almost century-old hypothesis of “tired light”, according to which it is not galaxies that move away from us, but light quanta during a long journey experience some resistance to their movement, gradually lose energy and turn red. However, the cosmological shift hypothesis is perhaps the most popular today. The formation of the cosmological redshift can be represented as follows: consider light - an electromagnetic wave coming from a distant galaxy. As light travels through space, space expands. Along with it, the wave packet also expands. Accordingly, the wavelength also changes. If space has doubled during the flight of light, then both the wavelength and the wave packet double. Only this hypothesis can explain the discrepancy in distances obtained at the end of the 20th century in terms of the Doppler effect and the spectrum of type Ia supernovae, accentuated in the works of the 2011 Nobel Prize winners who discovered that in distant galaxies, the distance to which was determined by the Hubble law, type Ia supernovae are brighter than they should be. Or the distance to these galaxies, calculated using the "standard candles" method, turns out to be greater than the distance calculated based on the previously established value of the Hubble parameter. What served as the basis for the conclusion The universe is not just expanding, it is expanding with acceleration! Nevertheless, it should be noted that here the law of conservation of the energy of the emitted photon in the absence of interactions is explicitly violated. But not only does it allow us to consider the cosmological displacement hypothesis untenable, it remains unclear: What is the fundamental difference between the properties of intragalactic space and intergalactic space? If there is no cosmological displacement in unchanging interstellar space, and only it exists in intergalactic space; When, by whom and how was a new fundamental interaction discovered, referred to as "a decrease in the energy of a photon from the expansion of the Universe?"; What is the physical basis for the difference between relic photons (z~1000) and the rest (z CMB radiation Let's start with the popular thesis about G. Gamow's prediction of microwave background radiation. In "The Expanding Universe and the Formation of Galaxies" published in Proceedings of the Danish Academy of Sciences for Mat-Fis. Medd 27 (10), 1, 1953 G. Gamow proceeded from two positions: 1) the modern era corresponds to the asymptotic inertial mode of the expansion of the world in the framework of the homogeneous Friedman model with the expansion time T ~ 3 million years and the density of matter in the universe p ~ 10^-30 g/cm; 2) the temperature in the universe in all epochs was different from 0, and at the beginning of the expansion it was very high. The Universe was in thermodynamic equilibrium, or material objects with a temperature T, according to Stefan Boltzmann's law, emitted photons with a frequency corresponding to this temperature. During adiabatic expansion, radiation and matter cool, but do not disappear. Based on these provisions, G. Gamov obtained an estimate of the dating of the predominance of matter over radiation at ~ 73 million years, the radiation temperature at the demarcation point is 320 K, and an estimate of the current value of this radiation, with a linear extrapolation of 7K. S. Weinberg makes the following remark on Gamow's "prediction" of the CMB: "... a look at this 1953 work shows that Gamow's prediction was based on mathematically erroneous arguments relating to the age of the universe, and not on his own theory of cosmic nucleosynthesis." In addition, regarding G. Gamow's prediction, I would like to note that the inverse approximation of the experimentally recorded microwave background of 2.7 K at a magnification of 100 times (according to G. Gamow's calculations) leads to a recombination temperature of 270 K, which is similar on the Earth's surface. And when the recombination temperature is approximated by a factor of 100, the microwave background should be recorded in the range of ~ 30K. In this regard, the widespread/popular stamp about G. Gamow's theoretical prediction of the microwave background/cosmic microwave background with subsequent experimental confirmation looks more like a literary exaggeration than a scientific fact. Today, the origin of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) is described something like this: “When the Universe expands so much that the plasma cools to the recombination temperature, electrons begin to combine with protons, forming neutral hydrogen, and photons begin to propagate freely. The points from which photons reach the observer form the so-called last scattering surface. This is the only source in the universe that surrounds us from all sides. The surface temperature of the last scattering is estimated at about 3000 K, the age of the Universe is about 400,000 years. From that moment on, photons ceased to be scattered by now neutral atoms and were able to move freely in space, practically without interacting with matter. The equilibrium temperature of the relic radiation, similar to the radiation of an absolutely black body, equally heated, is 3000 K. But here we face many paradoxes. The radiation of even extremely distant cosmological objects is not scattered (the medium is transparent); The spectral composition of radiation even from extremely distant cosmological objects does not change (the medium is linear). The spectral composition of the relic radiation should correspond to the spectral composition of the radiation of a black body at 3000 K. But its registered spectral composition corresponds to the radiation of a black body heated to 2.7 K, without any additional extrema. It is not clear under the influence of what process, contrary to the law of conservation of energy, the photons emitted at 3000K turned into photons corresponding to a temperature of 2.7K? According to the formula hv=KT, the photon energy should decrease by a factor of a thousand without any interactions and influences, which is impossible. In other words, if the cosmic microwave background radiation would have an origin in accordance with the Big Bang theory, then there is no physical reason for it to have a spectrum other than that of a black body at 3000 K. The “decreasing due to the expansion of the Universe” is just a set of words that has the only meaning - to cover up the direct contradiction of the theory to the observational facts. If the current equilibrium radiation corresponds to a temperature of 2.7 K, then three orders of magnitude more high temperature 3000 K will correspond to equilibrium radiation of about three orders of magnitude more energetic photons of the shorter wavelength spectral maximum. A number of scientists believe that the microwave background (cosmic microwave background) is too homogeneous to be considered a consequence of a grandiose explosion. There are also works in which this radiation is explained by the total radiation of stars, and works with an explanation of this radiation by particles of cosmic dust .... Much simpler is the loss of energy of relic photons emitted at T 3000K due to losses during the passage of physical vacuum (analogue of the ether). Summarizing what has been said about the alternatives to the Doppler effect of the redshift of astronomical objects, it should be noted that the hypothesis of the cosmological shift does not have a physically consistent mechanism for the loss of photon energy. In essence, being only an analogue of the “tired light” hypothesis, modified after ~ 100 years. As for the prediction and connection of the cosmic microwave background radiation with the theory of the hot universe, these are far from unambiguous things that have many unresolved issues. Including the lack of experimental registration of relict neutrinos, which are rarely mentioned in the literature, a little earlier than photons arising during plasma cooling. The Doppler effect is in doubt ... observations of quasars, supernovae The first quasar, or radio source 3C 48, was discovered in the late 1950s by A. Sandage and T. Matthews during a radio survey of the sky. The object seemed to coincide with one star, unlike any other: in its spectrum there were bright lines that could not be correlated with any of the known atoms. A little later, in 1962, another star-like object was discovered that emitted 3C273 in a wide spectrum. A year later, M. Schmidt showed that if a shift of 16% is attributed to this star-like object, then its spectrum will coincide with the spectrum of gaseous hydrogen. This redshift is large even for most galaxies. Object 3C 273 was identified not with an exotic star from Milky Way, but something completely different, rushing from us at great speed. The distance to this quasar is estimated at about 2 billion light years, and the apparent brightness is 12.6m. It turned out that other stellar radio sources, such as 3C 48, also have large redshifts. These compact objects with a high redshift, which look like stars in photographs, are quasars. It is believed that quasars continuously absorb gas, dust, other space debris and even stars from the nearest space. The gravitational energy released at the same time maintains the bright glow of quasars - they radiate in the entire electromagnetic range with an intensity greater than hundreds and thousands of billions of ordinary stars. Observations of celestial objects are far from always in accordance with the provisions of fundamentally unverifiable models and hypotheses, incl. some empirical observations of the starry sky contradict the behavior of objects designated as quasars. One of the problems brought by the redshift of objects - quasars is the violation of the visually observed connection between quasars and galaxies. H. Arp in the middle of the 70s of the last century, found that the quasar Makarian 205, near the spiral galaxy NGC 4319, is visually connected with the galaxy through a luminous bridge. The galaxy has a redshift of 1,800 kilometers per second, corresponding to a distance of about 107 million light years. The quasar has a redshift of 21,000 kilometers per second, which should mean it is 1.24 billion light years away. H. Arp suggested that these objects are definitely related and this shows that the standard interpretation of the redshift is wrong in this case. Critics have said they have not found the link bridge shown in Arp's picture of NGC 4319. But later, Jack M. Sulentik of the University of Alabama made an extensive photometric study of the two objects and concluded that the link bridge is real. In addition to the presence of a continuous light connection between quasars and galaxies in which quasars are observed, H. Arp, based on observations of four quasars in the vicinity of the NGC520 galaxy, believed that they were ejected from an exploding galaxy. Moreover, erupted quasars have a redshift much greater than the galaxy that seems to be their parent. Remarkably, according to standard redshift theory, quasars must be much further away than the galaxy. H. Arp interprets this and other similar examples by suggesting that freshly erupted quasars are born at high redshifts, and gradually, their redshifts decrease over time. The "quantization" of quasars or the registration of several objects with identical radiation parameters has posed yet another problem for cosmologists since 1979. Observing the starry sky D. Welsh R. Karshvell and R. Weyman (Den?nis Walsh, Robert Carswell, Ray Weymann) found two equally radiating objects located at an angular distance of 6 seconds of arc from each other. In addition, these objects had the same redshift zs=l.41, as well as identical spectral characteristics (spectral line profiles, flux ratios in different regions of the spectrum, etc.). Having broken their heads over the emerging astronomical puzzle, cosmologists remembered the old idea of F. Zwicky (1937) about gravitational lenses based on galaxies. According to which the presence of a massive gravitational object (nebula, galaxy or dark matter), near the trajectory of a light beam, as it were, increases the source of light rays. This effect is called gravitational lensing. The behavior of a gravitational lens is very different from an optical lens due to the fact that the theory of gravity is fundamentally non-linear. If the distant object were on the line observer - lens, then the observer would see the Einstein ring. The probability of such a coincidence is small (we do not have the ability to change any of the base points), the point source will be visible as two arcs inside and outside relative to the Einstein ring. Despite the lack of mass of galaxies for a significant deflection of rays with the assumed gravitational lensing and the fundamental possibility of the lens to build only one phantom image, there are no other reasonable explanations in the arsenal of cosmologists for observations of phantom images of several quasar objects in the sky. They have to build absolutely fantastic projections about "a group of five galaxies (two with a redshift of 0.3098, two - 0.3123 and one - 0.3095)", the so-called "Second lens." to explain the quadruple image of a quasar with a redshift of zs=l,722. Another problem that quasars brought objects (today, more than 1,500 of them have redshifts measured) was the lack of a capable mechanism in modern physics that could explain the huge radiation power in a relatively small volume. Despite the fact that this is not directly related to the redshift, this fact deserves attention. The conditionality of the redshift of many astronomical objects by the Doppler effect, one can say, not only contradicts some observations of the movement and location of astronomical objects, but also poses a number of unsolvable questions for modern physics: physical processes in quasars, exceeding the relative speed of light by distant astronomical objects, antigravity … The discoverer of the famous law, E. Hubble, also doubted the need for such a conditionality. And it is impossible to establish a reliable area of application of the Doppler effect to explain the redshift, because there are no redshift objects in the vicinity of the Earth and the solar system. Today, a significant number of astronomers claim that the redshifts of many objects are not caused by the Doppler effect and it is incorrect to interpret them solely by the Doppler effect. Perhaps the Doppler effect causes the redshift of objects, but how can you know that the redshift of all objects is caused precisely by the Doppler effect? For example, the discrepancy in distances determined from both the Doppler effect and the spectrum of type Ia supernovae at long distances has practically led to the exclusion of the Doppler effect as the cause of the redshift at such distances; and at the same time to remove the restriction on the speed of light as the maximum possible relative speed of movement. Conclusion In the middle and first half of the 20th century, the concept of the Big Bang, which grew out of the explosion of the primordial atom by J. Lemaitre, mainly by the works of G. Gamow, was on the whole a progressive research program that successfully explained some incomprehensible astronomical observations that existed at that time. The observed redshift and the recorded relic radiation (microwave background) were, one might say, the empirical basis (two whales) on which this concept was based. At the beginning of the 21st century, progress in explaining new astronomical observations was replaced by regression with the advent of many ad-hoc (additional) hypotheses, as we saw, not always able to give a constructive explanation for new observations. Along with this, the active use of both hypothetical objects (black holes, dark matter, dark energy, singularity ...) and hypothetical phenomena (singularity explosion, antigravity, rapid fragmentation of matter ...) has become popular in the concept. It should be noted that the frequent use of hypothetical objects and hypothetical phenomena in the concept does not make it possible to consider such objects or phenomena as really existing. Yes, and the empirical basis (two whales) of the Big Bang, one might say, is hardly under the influence of criticism: after the divergence of data on type Ia supernovae, the redshift has lost its unambiguous connection with the Doppler effect, the connection of the cosmic microwave background radiation with the “primary plasma” has not received confirmation in the form of registration relic neutrinos, a little earlier emitted by the "first plasma". One gets the impression that not only the conclusions of cosmologists do not have a scientifically sound basis, but the very attempt to create a certain mathematical model of the Universe is incorrect and is fraught with difficulties of a fundamental nature. The well-known Swedish plasma physicist and astrophysicist, Nobel Prize winner H. Alven attributed the "Big Bang theory" to the category of mathematical myths, which only differs from the Egyptian, Greek myths .., the Ptolemaic system in operations on idealized objects. He wrote: "One of these myths, the 'big bang' cosmological theory, is now considered 'conventional' in the scientific community. This is mainly due to the fact that this theory was promoted by G. Gamov with his inherent energy and charm. As for the observational data testifying in favor of this theory, as G. Gamov and its other supporters stated, they have completely disappeared, but the less scientific evidence there is, the more fanatical belief in this myth becomes. As you know, this cosmological theory is the height of absurdity - it claims that the entire universe came into being at some specific moment, like an exploding atomic bomb, which is (more or less) the size of a pinhead. It seems that in the current intellectual atmosphere, the great advantage of the “big bang” cosmology is that it is an affront to common sense: credo, quia absurdum (“believe, because it is absurd”)…….when hundreds or thousands of cosmologists dress up this story into sophistical equations and contrary to the truth, they claim that this nonsense is supported by everything that is observed by giant telescopes - who dares to doubt? If this is considered science, then there is a contradiction between science and common sense. The cosmological doctrine of today is an anti-intellectual factor, perhaps of great importance!” Recalling the value of the period of revolution of the Solar System around the galactic center ~ 200 million years, the lack of experimentally reliable data on star formation, the empirical failure of astrodistances greater than 1 kpc, .... there is no reason to consider the Big Bang concept to be significantly different from what is called a near-scientific myth. K. Balding, in his address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, said: “Cosmology ... seems to us to be a science that does not have a solid foundation, if only because it studies the vast Universe using the example of a small part of it, the studies of which cannot give an objective pictures of reality. We have observed it over a very short period of time and have a relatively complete picture of only a negligible part of its volume.” Giant extrapolations in time and space, the use of hypothetical objects and phenomena, seems fundamentally impossible to avoid when considering questions about the origin and structure of the universe. Until now, we have been talking about objective knowledge about the origin of the world and the general laws of the universe. And following many sane people, they came to the conclusion that the picture of the origin and structure of the universe offered today is also mythological. Let us recall that questions about the origin of the world and life, the general laws of the world order, first of all, being children, we subjectively address to our fathers and grandfathers. And we, upon reaching maturity, will have to keep a personal / subjective answer to these questions in front of our children and grandchildren. The most significant difference between religious knowledge and scientific knowledge lies in the subjective nature of the religious and the objective nature of the scientific. The Orthodox patristic point of view on the origin of the world, at the present stage, was voiced and developed most carefully and in detail by Father Seraphim Rose. According to it, the processes that took place on the biblical Six Days are fundamentally different from those taking place under the influence of the order of nature today. The patristic point of view has never contradicted, and today does not contradict scientific data, because the order of nature or existing in modern world the laws of nature, the phenomenal part of which are known to scientists, appeared in the universe after the creation of the world and life. The text of Shestodnev describes supernatural events and processes that took place in time before the establishment of the order of nature in the universe. And it is impossible to obtain any knowledge about these processes by objective (scientific) methods, they are outside the scope of scientific knowledge about the world. Literature What do you think the term “Expansion of the Universe” means, what is the essence of this phenomenon. As you guessed, the basis lies in the concept of redshift. It took shape as early as 1870, when it was noticed by the English mathematician and philosopher William Clifford. He came to the conclusion that space is not the same at different points, that is, it is curved, and that it can change over time. The distance between galaxies increases, but the coordinates remain the same. Also, his assumptions were reduced to the fact that this phenomenon is somehow related to the shift of matter. Clifford's conclusions did not go unnoticed and after some time formed the basis of Albert Einstein's work entitled "". For the first time, accurate information about the expansion of the Universe was presented using astrospectrography. When in England, in 1886, amateur astronomer William Huggins noted that the wavelengths of starlight were shifted in comparison with the same earth waves. Such a measurement became possible using the optical interpretation of the Doppler effect, the essence of which is that the speed of sound waves is constant in a homogeneous medium and depends only on the properties of the medium itself, in which case it is possible to calculate the magnitude of the star's rotation. All these actions allow us to secretly determine the movement of a space object. Literally 26 years later, in Flagstaff (USA, Arizona), a member of the National Academy of Sciences, Westo Slifer, studying the spectrum of spiral nebulae through a telescope with a spectrograph, was the first to indicate the differences in the velocities of clusters, that is, Galaxies, by integral spectra. Given that the rate of study was low, he still managed to calculate that the nebula is 300 km closer to our planet every second. Already in 1917, he proved the redshift of more than 25 nebulae, in the direction of which a significant asymmetry was visible. Only four of them went to the direction of the Earth, while the rest moved away, and at a rather impressive speed. A decade later, the famous astronomer Edwin Hubble proved that the redshift of distant galaxies is greater than that of closer ones, and that it increases in proportion to the distance to them. He also obtained a constant called the Hubble constant, which is used to find the radial velocities of any galaxy. Hubble's law, like no other, relates the redshift of electromagnetic quanta. Given this phenomenon, it is presented not only in classical but also in quantum form. Today, one of the fundamental ways to find intergalactic distances is the "standard candle" method, the essence of which is the weakening of the flow inversely proportional to the square of its distance. Edwin usually used Cepheids (variable stars), the brightness of which is greater the greater their periodicity of change in glow. They are also used in this moment, although they are visible only at a distance of less than 100 million sv. years. Likewise, supernovae of the la type, characterized by the same glow of about 10 billion stars such as our Sun, are enjoying great success. In the photo - the star RS Puppis, which is a Cepheid More recently, significant progress has been noted in the field of measuring interstellar distances, which is associated with the use of a space telescope named after E. Hubble (, HST). With the help of which the project for the search for Cepheids of galaxies distant from us is being implemented. One of the goals of the project is a more accurate determination of the Hubble constant, the leader of the entire project, Wendy Friedman and her colleagues give her an estimate of 0.7, in contrast to the 0.55 accepted by Edwin himself. The Hubble telescope is also searching for supernovae at cosmic distances and determining the age of the Universe.
Redshift lowering the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, one of the manifestations of the Doppler effect a .
Name "K. with." due to the fact that in the visible part of the spectrum, as a result of this phenomenon, the lines are shifted to its red end; K. s. observed in radiation of any other frequencies, for example, in the radio range. The opposite effect associated with increasing frequencies is called blue (or violet) shift. Most often, the term "K. with." is used to designate two phenomena - cosmological K. s. and gravitational K. s. Cosmological (metagalactic) K. s. called the decrease in radiation frequencies observed for all distant sources (galaxies (See Galaxies), quasars (See Quasars)) indicating that these sources are moving away from each other and, in particular, from our Galaxy, i.e., about non-stationarity (expansion ) Metagalaxies. K. s. for galaxies was discovered by the American astronomer W. Slifer in 1912-14; in 1929 E. Hubble
discovered that K. s. for distant galaxies it is greater than for nearby ones, and increases approximately in proportion to the distance (K. s. law, or Hubble's law). Various explanations for the observed shift of spectral lines have been proposed. Such, for example, is the hypothesis of the decay of light quanta over a time of millions and billions of years, during which the light from distant sources reaches the earthly observer; according to this hypothesis, the energy decreases during decay, which is also the reason for the change in the radiation frequency. However, this hypothesis is not supported by observations. In particular, K. s. in different parts of the spectrum of the same source, within the framework of the hypothesis, should be different. Meanwhile, all observational data indicate that K. s. does not depend on frequency, the relative change in frequency z = (ν 0 - ν)/ν 0 is exactly the same for all frequencies of radiation, not only in the optical, but also in the radio range of a given source ( ν 0
is the frequency of some line in the source spectrum, ν
- frequency of the same line recorded by the receiver; v). Such a change in frequency is a characteristic property of the Doppler shift and virtually excludes all other interpretations of K. s. In relativity theory (See Relativity theory) Doppler K. s. is considered as a result of the slowing down of the flow of time in a moving frame of reference (the effect of the special theory of relativity). If the speed of the source system relative to the receiver system is υ
(in the case of metagalactic K. s. υ -
is the radial velocity) ,
then (c is the speed of light in vacuum) and according to the observed K. s. it is easy to determine the radial velocity of the source: Up until the 50s. 20th century extragalactic distances (the measurement of which, of course, involves great difficulties) were greatly underestimated, in connection with which the value H, determined by these distances, turned out to be very overestimated. In the early 70s. 20th century for the Hubble constant, the value H = 53±5( km/s)/Mgps, reciprocal T = 1/H = 18 billion years. Photographing the spectra of weak (distant) sources for measuring CV, even when using the largest instruments and sensitive photographic plates, requires favorable observation conditions and long exposures. For galaxies, displacements are confidently measured z≈ 0.2, corresponding to the speed υ
≈ 60 000 km/s and a distance of more than 1 billion km. ps. At such speeds and distances, the Hubble law is applicable in its simplest form (the error is about 10%, i.e., the same as the error in determining H). Quasars are, on average, a hundred times brighter than galaxies and, therefore, can be observed at distances ten times greater (if space is Euclidean). For quasars do register z≈ 2 and more. With displacements z= 2 speed υ
≈ 0,8․c = 240 000 km/s At such speeds, specific cosmological effects are already affecting - non-stationarity and curvature of space-time (See Curvature of space-time); in particular, the concept of a single unambiguous distance becomes inapplicable r= υlH = 4.5 billion ps). K. s. testifies to the expansion of the entire part of the universe accessible to observations; this phenomenon is commonly referred to as the expansion of the (astronomical) universe. Gravitational K. with. is a consequence of the slowing down of the pace of time and is due to the gravitational field (the effect of the general theory of relativity). This phenomenon (also called the Einstein effect, the generalized Doppler effect) was predicted by A. Einstein
in 1911; it was observed beginning in 1919, first in the radiation of the Sun and then in the radiation of some other stars. Gravitational K. with. It is customary to characterize the conditional speed υ,
calculated formally using the same formulas as in the cases of cosmological cosmological s. Conditional speed values: for the Sun υ =
0,6 km/sec, for the dense star Sirius B υ =
20 km/s In 1959, for the first time, it was possible to measure the K. s., due to the gravitational field of the Earth, which is very small: υ =
7,5․10 -5 cm/sec(see Mössbauer effect). In some cases (for example, during a gravitational collapse (See Gravitational Collapse)) one should observe coexistence. both types (in the form of a total effect). Lit.: Landau L. D., Lifshits E. M., Field Theory, 4th ed., M., 1962, § 89, 107; Observational foundations of cosmology, trans. from English, M., 1965. G. I. Naan. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia.
1969-1978
.
Redshift is the shift of the spectral lines of chemical elements to the red (long-wavelength) side. This phenomenon may be an expression of the Doppler effect or gravitational redshift, or a combination of both. Spectrum shift ... Wikipedia Modern Encyclopedia An increase in the wavelengths of the lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of the lines towards the red part of the spectrum) compared to the lines of the reference spectra. redshift occurs when the distance between the source of radiation and its receiver ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary Redshift- REDSHIFT, an increase in the wavelengths of the lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of the lines towards the red part of the spectrum) compared to the lines of the reference spectra. Redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary The increase in wavelengths (l) lines in el. magn. spectrum of the source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. Quantitatively K. s. characterized by the value z \u003d (lprin lsp) / lsp, where lsp and lprin ... ... Physical Encyclopedia - (designation z), an increase in the wavelength of visible light or in another range of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, caused either by the removal of the source (DOPPLER effect), or by the expansion of the Universe (see EXPANDING UNIVERSE). Defined as a change... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary An increase in the wavelengths of the lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of the lines towards the red part of the spectrum) compared to the lines of the reference spectra. Redshift occurs when the distance between a radiation source and its receiver is... ... encyclopedic Dictionary An increase in the wavelengths of the lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of the lines towards the red part of the spectrum) compared to the lines of the reference spectra. Redshift occurs when the distance between the source of radiation and its receiver ... ... Astronomical dictionary redshift- raudonasis poslinkis statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: angl. red shift vok. Rotverschiebung, f rus. redshift, npranc. decalage vers le rouge, m; deplacement vers le rouge, m … Fizikos terminų žodynas RED SHIFT, an increase in wavelengths (reduction in frequencies) of the electromagnetic radiation of a source, manifested in a shift of spectral lines or other details of the spectrum towards the red (long-wave) end of the spectrum. The redshift is usually estimated by measuring the shift in the position of the lines in the spectrum of the observed object relative to the spectral lines of a reference source with known wavelengths. Quantitatively, the redshift is measured by the magnitude of the relative increase in wavelengths: Z \u003d (λ in -λ exp) / λ exp, where λ prin and λ isp - respectively, the length of the received wave and the wave emitted by the source. There are two possible reasons redshift. It may be due to the Doppler effect, when the observed source of radiation is removed. If, in this case, z « 1, then the removal velocity is ν = cz, where c is the speed of light. If the distance to the source decreases, a shift of the opposite sign is observed (the so-called violet shift). For objects in our Galaxy, both red and violet shifts do not exceed z= 10 -3 . In the case of high speeds comparable to the speed of light, redshift occurs due to relativistic effects even if the source speed is directed across the line of sight (transverse Doppler effect). A special case of the Doppler redshift is the cosmological redshift observed in the spectra of galaxies. Cosmological redshift was first discovered by V. Slifer in 1912-14. It arises as a result of an increase in the distances between galaxies, due to the expansion of the Universe, and on average grows linearly with increasing distances to the galaxy (Hubble's law). For not too large redshifts (z< 1) закон Хаббла обычно используется для оценки расстояний до внегалактических объектов. Наиболее далёкие наблюдаемые объекты (галактики, квазары) имеют красные смещения, существенно превышающие z = 1. Известно несколько объектов с z >6. With such values of z, the radiation emitted by the source in the visible region of the spectrum is received in the IR region. Due to the finiteness of the speed of light, objects with large cosmological redshifts are observed as they were billions of years ago, in the era of their youth. Gravitational redshift occurs when the light receiver is in an area with a lower gravitational potential φ than the source. In the classical interpretation of this effect, photons lose part of their energy to overcome the forces of gravity. As a result, the frequency characterizing the energy of the photon decreases, and the wavelength increases accordingly. For weak gravitational fields, the value of the gravitational redshift is equal to z g = Δφ/с 2 , where Δφ is the difference between the gravitational potentials of the source and the receiver. It follows that for spherically symmetric bodies z g = GM/Rc 2 , where M and R are the mass and radius of the radiating body, G is the gravitational constant. A more accurate (relativistic) formula for non-rotating spherical bodies is: z g \u003d (1 -2GM / Rc 2) -1/2 - 1. Gravitational redshift is observed in the spectra of dense stars (white dwarfs); for them z g ≤10 -3 . The gravitational redshift was discovered in the spectrum of the white dwarf Sirius B in 1925 (W. Adams, USA). Radiation from the inner regions of accretion disks around black holes should have the strongest gravitational redshift. An important property of any type of redshift (Doppler, cosmological, gravitational) is the absence of dependence of z on the wavelength. This conclusion is confirmed experimentally: for the same radiation source, the spectral lines in the optical, radio, and X-ray ranges have the same redshift. Lit.: Zasov A. V., Postnov K. A. General astrophysics. Fryazino, 2006.Wikipedia
About a hundred years ago, the American astronomer Weston Slipher (Slipher), working in the field of spectroscopy of stars and nebulae, discovered that the spectral lines of chemical elements in the spectra that came from most nebulae have a shift towards its low-frequency part. This shift of spectral lines or a relative change in length is called Red Shift (RS).
z = (l - l 0)/l 0 , (1) where l 0 is the laboratory wavelength, l is the wavelength of the shifted line in the spectrum of a distant nebula.
Let's see, following the discoverer of the famous law - some alternative explanations for the spectral shift of distant nebulae or redshift:
- how does the decrease in the energy of a photon due to the expansion of the Universe fundamentally differ from the well-known hypothesis of “tired light” a long time ago?
Let's take a closer look at the shortcomings of the cosmological hypothesis using the example of the cosmic microwave background (cosmic microwave background radiation - with the light hand of I.S. Shklovsky), emitted by hot matter in the early Universe shortly before it, cooling down, passed from the plasma state to gaseous.
Big problems for the dominant in the second half of the 20th century interpretation of the redshift by the Doppler effect were also introduced by astronomical objects - quasars, or, if you call them by their full name, quasi-stellar radio sources.
In addition to the aforementioned positions, for LCDM (Lambda - Cold Dark Matter, the dominant version of the Big Bang concept), the rapid growth of redshifts of detected astronomical objects is problematic today. By 2008, all of them had already overcome the boundary z = 6, and the record z of gamma-ray bursts grew especially fast. In 2009, they set another record: z = 8.2. This makes the existing theories of galaxy formation untenable: they simply do not have enough time to form. Meanwhile, progress in z scores doesn't seem to be stopping. Even according to the most optimistic estimates of the size of the universe, if objects with z > 12 appear, this will become a full-blown LCDM crisis.
As is known, two mechanisms lead to redshift: the Doppler effect and the gravitational effect. The redshift due to the first effect occurs when the movement of the light source relative to the observer leads to an increase in the distance between the source and the observer. Gravitational redshift occurs when the light receiver is in an area with a lower gravitational potential than the source. In this case, the redshift is a consequence of slowing down the rate of time near the gravitating mass and reducing the frequency of emitted light quanta.
In astrophysics and cosmology, the redshift is usually correlated, as mentioned above, with Hubble's empirical law. When observing the spectra of distant galaxies and their clusters, it turned out that the redshift value increases with increasing distance to a distant object. It is usually assumed that the farther an object is from the observer (of course, huge cosmic distances are taken into account here), the faster it moves away from us. Hubble's law is expressed numerically by a formula in which the speed of a receding object is equal to the distance to it, multiplied by a factor called the Hubble constant. In the general theory of relativity, in the version of solving its equations, which was given by A.A. Friedman, the removal of clusters of galaxies from each other is explained by the expansion of the Universe. On this decision, in fact, the model of the Universe is built, which has received wide recognition. It is believed that the current state of the Universe is the result of its successive expansion after the Big Bang from some singular state. (They usually accept a model of a hot universe that cools as it expands.)
The cosmological scenario in the Logunov RTG does not look like this at all. In this theory, as stated in the annotation concerning cosmology, a new property was discovered not only to slow down the course of time by the action of gravity, but also to stop the process of slowing down, and, consequently, the process of compression of matter. There is a phenomenon of "self-limitation" of the gravitational field, which plays an important role in the universe. According to RTG, a homogeneous and isotropic Universe can only be “flat” and develops cyclically from some maximum density to a minimum, and so on. At the same time, the theory eliminates the well-known problems of general relativity: singularity, causality (horizon), flatness (Euclidean). The effect of the "self-limitation" of the field also excludes the possibility of the formation of "black holes". The existence of "dark" matter follows from the theory.
Let us now get acquainted with the problem of logical and empirical justifications of GR and RTG in terms of exclusively cosmological consequences of these theories.
RTG Logunov redshift phenomenon is explained by the gravitational effect. According to the solution of equations compiled according to the rule of combining two metric tensors, matter in the Universe, when considered on a large scale, is at rest; the gravitational field undergoes a cyclic change in time. The presence of this cyclic process is explained by the fact that gravitons have their own mass, which is estimated by a value of the order (?). When the Universe is in the phase of decreasing the intensity of the gravitational field, an electromagnetic signal coming from some remote point of the Universe to the point where the observer is located, falls into that place in space where the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation are higher in proportion to the duration required for the signal to propagate from the point r to the point (?). Hence the frequency difference in the standard spectrum and the spectrum of the signal coming from afar. As you can see, the author of the RTG presented an ingenious, in terms of simplicity, explanation and quantitative description of the redshift phenomenon.
As "experimental evidence" of the theory of the Big Bang consider the presence of relic radiation and the so-called "reddening of photons" - the red shift of the spectra of visible radiation of galaxies.
In RTG, the existence of cosmic microwave background radiation is associated mainly with the fact that the intensity of the gravitational field in the Universe changes with time and at the beginning of the cycle of the development of the Universe was much greater than at present. Matter in the distant past, of course, was in a state different from the current one - this is also evident from the results of astronomical observations. The temperature and pressure in the "primordial universe" were much higher than they are now. Then, as the Universe cools down, the radiation "breaks away" from matter, and we observe it as a relic. However, there are other interpretations of the relic radiation - for example, the assumption that the background radiation of the Universe appears during the continuous process of synthesis of atoms and molecules of hydrogen and liquefaction of hydrogen molecules. The reddening of photons is also explained in the framework of RTG by a change in the strength of the gravitational field with time, but, apparently, another mechanism is also at work here. http://elementy.ru/lib/430919?context=2455814&discuss=430919First sound ideas
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v approaches the speed of light, always remaining less than it (v v, much less than the speed of light ( υ) ,
the formula is simplified: υ
≈cz. Hubble's law in this case is written in the form υ = cz = Hr (r- distance, H - Hubble constant). To determine the distances to extragalactic objects using this formula, you need to know the numerical value of the Hubble constant N. Knowledge of this constant is also very important for cosmology (See Cosmology) : with it is associated with the so-called. age of the universe.See what "Redshift" is in other dictionaries: