The last years of the USSR. The USSR is a union of Soviet socialist republics What year was the Soviet Union

In 1913, the future head of the first socialist state, V.I. Lenin, being a unitarian like Marx and Engels, wrote that a centralized large state "is a huge historical step forward from medieval fragmentation to the future socialist unity of all countries." In the period from February to October 1917, the centuries-old state unity of Russia collapsed - a number of bourgeois-nationalist governments arose on its territory (the Central Rada in Ukraine, Cossack circles on the Don, Terek and Orenburg, Kurultai in the Crimea, national Soviets in the Transcaucasus and the Baltic states, etc. .), seeking to isolate themselves from the traditional center. The threat of a sharp reduction in the territory of the socialist proletarian state, the loss of hopes for an early world revolution forced the leader of the party that came to power in Russia to reconsider his point of view on its state structure - he became a fierce supporter of federalism, however, at the stage of transition "to complete unity". The slogan "one and indivisible Russia", professed by the leaders of the white movement, was opposed by the principle of the right of all nations to self-determination, which attracted the leaders of national movements ...

However, the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 was a step back from a true federation, since it only declared the form of the state structure of Russia (it did not even provide for the representation of future members of the federation in the authorities of the center), in fact, it proclaimed a unitary state created from above on the initiative of the ruling party by joining those conquered in during the Civil War of the Territories. The division of powers between federal and local bodies in the Russian Federation was based on the principles of the exclusive competence of the first and the residual - the second ...

The first intra-Russian national borders appeared in late 1918 - early 1919 with the formation of the Labor Commune of the region of the Volga Germans and the Bashkir ASSR, by the end of 1922 there were already 19 autonomous republics and regions in the RSFSR, as well as 2 labor communes created on a national basis. National-state formations coexisted with administrative-territorial units, both of which had a very weakly expressed independence.

The Russian Federation, according to the plan of its founders, was to become a model of a larger socialist state, allowing the restoration of the Russian Empire, the collapse of which during the revolution and the "triumphal procession" of the Soviet power could not be avoided. Until the middle of 1918, only two republics existed as independent states - the RSFSR and Ukraine, then the Byelorussian Republic, three republics in the Baltic states, three in Transcaucasia ...

From the first days of their existence, the RSFSR, itself in need of the most necessary, provided them with assistance in various spheres of public life. The armies of the independent republics were supplied by the People's Commissariat (People's Commissariat) for military affairs of the RSFSR. A decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of June 1, 1919 "On the unification of the socialist republics of Russia, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus for the struggle against world imperialism" formalized a military alliance. The armies of all the republics were united into a single army of the RSFSR, the military command, management of railways, communications, and finances were united. The monetary system of all the republics was based on the Russian ruble, the RSFSR took over their expenses for the maintenance of the state apparatus, armies, and for the establishment of the economy. The republics received from her industrial and agricultural products, food and other assistance. The union, along with other factors, helped all the republics to get out of the war ...

Over time, the state apparatus of all the republics began to be built in the likeness of the RSFSR, their plenipotentiary representations appeared in Moscow, which had the right to enter on behalf of their governments with representations and petitions to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom), People's Commissariats of the RSFSR, to inform the authorities of their republic about the most important events of the RSFSR, and the authorities of the latter on the state of the economy and the needs of their republic. On the territory of the republics, there was an apparatus of authorized representatives of some people's commissariats of the RSFSR, customs barriers were gradually overcome, and border posts were removed.

After the blockade of the Entente was lifted, the RSFSR concluded trade agreements with England, Italy, Norway, and Ukraine with Austria, Czechoslovakia and other states. In March 1921, a joint delegation of the RSFSR and Ukraine concluded an agreement with Poland. In January 1922, on behalf of the organizers of the Genoa Conference, the Italian government invited only the RSFSR from all the republics to participate in it. In February 1922, at the initiative of the Russian Federation, nine republics signed a protocol authorizing it to represent and protect their joint interests, to conclude and sign treaties with foreign states on their behalf. Thus, the military, bilateral military-economic treaties were supplemented by a diplomatic agreement. The next step was the formation of a political union.

FOUR REPUBLICS INSTEAD OF ONE EMPIRE

By 1922, 6 republics had formed on the territory of the former Russian Empire: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian SSR and the Georgian SSR. Between them from the very beginning there was a close cooperation, due to the common historical fate. During the years of the civil war, a military and economic alliance was formed, and at the time of the Genoa Conference in 1922, a diplomatic one. The unification was also facilitated by the common goal set by the governments of the republics - the construction of socialism on the territory located "in the capitalist environment."

In March 1922, the Azerbaijan, Armenian and Georgian SSRs merged into the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. In December 1922, the First Transcaucasian Congress of Soviets addressed the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee with a proposal to convene a united Congress of Soviets and discuss the issue of creating a union of Soviet republics. The same decisions were taken by the All-Ukrainian and All-Belarusian Congresses of Soviets.

IT WAS NOT STALIN-STYLE

There was no consensus on the principles of creating a union state. Among a number of proposals, two stood out: the inclusion of other Soviet republics in the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy (proposal) and the creation of a federation of republics with equal rights. Project I.V. Stalin "On the Relations of the RSFSR with the Independent Republics" was approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Parties of Azerbaijan and Armenia. The plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia recognized it as premature, and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Belarus spoke in favor of maintaining the existing contractual relations between the BSSR and the RSFSR. The Ukrainian Bolsheviks refrained from discussing the Stalinist project. Nevertheless, the autonomization plan was approved at a meeting of the commission of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) on September 23-24, 1922.

IN AND. Lenin, who did not participate in the discussion of the project, after reading the materials presented to him, rejected the idea of ​​autonomization and spoke in favor of forming a union of republics. He considered the Soviet Socialist Federation the most acceptable form of government for a multinational country.

NATIONAL LIBERALISM OF ILYICH

On October 5 - 6, 1922, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) adopted the plan of V.I. Lenin, however, this did not lead to an end to the struggle in the party on issues of national policy. Although the "autonomization" project was rejected, it still enjoyed some support from a number of senior officials both at the center and in the localities. I.V. Stalin and L.B. Kamenev was urged to show firmness against Ilyich's "national liberalism" and, in fact, to abandon the previous version.

At the same time, separatist tendencies in the republics are intensifying, which manifested itself in the so-called "Georgian incident", when the party leaders of Georgia demanded that it be included in the future state as an independent republic, and not as part of the Transcaucasian Federation. In response to this, the head of the Transcaucasian Regional Committee G.K. Ordzhonikidze was furious and called them "chauvinistic rot", and when one of the members of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia called him "Stalin's donkey", He also beat the latter hard. In protest against Moscow's pressure, the entire Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia resigned.

Commission chaired by F.E. Dzerzhinsky, created in Moscow to investigate this "incident", justified the actions of G.K. Ordzhonikidze and condemned the Georgian Central Committee. This decision aroused the indignation of V.I. Lenin. It should be recalled here that in October 1922, after an illness, although he began to work, he still could not fully control the situation due to health reasons. On the day of the formation of the USSR, being bedridden, he dictates his letter “On the question of nationalities or autonomization”, which begins with the words: “I seem to be very guilty before the workers of Russia for not intervening energetically and sharply enough into the notorious question of autonomization, officially called, it seems, the question of the union of Soviet socialist republics.

UNION AGREEMENT (ONE UNION INSTEAD OF FOUR REPUBLIC)

AGREEMENT ON THE FORMATION OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

The Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR), the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic (Ukrainian SSR), the Byelorussian Socialist Soviet Republic (BSSR) and the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (ZSSR - Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia) conclude this Union Treaty on unification into one union state - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics...

1. The jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, represented by its supreme bodies, shall be:

a) representation of the Union in international relations;

b) changing the external borders of the Union;

c) conclusion of agreements on the admission of new republics to the Union;

d) declaration of war and conclusion of peace;

e) conclusion of external state loans;

f) ratification of international treaties;

g) establishment of foreign and domestic trade systems;

h) establishing the foundations and general plan for the entire national economy of the Union, as well as concluding concession agreements;

i) regulation of transport and postal and telegraph business;

j) establishing the foundations for organizing the armed forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics;

k) approval of the unified state budget of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the establishment of a monetary, monetary and credit system, as well as a system of all-union, republican and local taxes;

l) establishment of general principles of land management and land use, as well as the use of subsoil, forests and waters throughout the territory of the Union;

m) common union legislation on resettlement;

o) establishing the foundations of the judiciary and legal proceedings, as well as civil and criminal union legislation;

o) establishment of basic labor laws;

p) establishing the general principles of public education;

c) the establishment of general measures in the field of public health protection;

r) establishment of a system of measures and weights;

s) organization of all-Union statistics;

t) the basic legislation in the field of union citizenship in relation to the rights of foreigners;

u) the right to a general amnesty;

v) repeal of resolutions of congresses of Soviets, Central Executive Committees and Soviets of People's Commissars of the Union Republics that violate the Union Treaty.

2. The supreme authority of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is the Congress of Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and in the periods between congresses - the Central Executive Committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

3. The Congress of Soviets The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is composed of representatives of city Soviets at the rate of 1 deputy per 25,000 voters and representatives of provincial congresses of Soviets at the rate of 1 deputy per 125,000 inhabitants.

4. Delegates to the Congress of Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics are elected at the provincial congresses of Soviets.

…eleven. The executive body of the Central Executive Committee of the Union is the Council of People's Commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Council of People's Commissars of the Union), elected by the Central Executive Committee of the Union for the term of office of the latter, consisting of:

Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Union,

Vice Presidents,

People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs,

People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs,

People's Commissar for Foreign Trade,

People's Commissar of Communications,

People's Commissar of Posts and Telegraphs,

People's Commissar of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate.

Chairman of the Supreme Council of the National Economy,

People's Commissar of Labour,

People's Commissar of Food,

People's Commissar of Finance.

…thirteen. Decrees and resolutions of the Council of People's Commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics are obligatory for all union republics and are carried out directly throughout the entire territory of the Union.

…22. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics has its own flag, coat of arms and state seal.

23. The capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is the city of Moscow.

…26. Each of the Union Republics retains the right to freely secede from the Union.

Congresses of Soviets in documents. 1917-1936. vol. III. M., 1960

1917, night of 26 to 27 October. Elected by the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets as head of the Soviet government - Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars.

1918, beginning of July. The 5th All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopts the Constitution of the RSFSR, which clarifies the status of the post of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, which is occupied by V.I. Lenin. November 30th. At the plenary meeting of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies, the Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense is approved, the Council is given full rights in the matter of mobilizing the country's forces and means for its defense. V.I. Lenin is approved as the Chairman of the Council.

1920, April. The Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense is transformed into the Council of Labor and Defense (STO) of the RSFSR under the chairmanship of V.I. Lenin.

1923, 6 July. The session of the Central Executive Committee elects V.I. Lenin as chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. July 7th The session of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR elects V.I. Lenin as chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. July 17th. The Council of Labor and Defense under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR is being created under the chairmanship of V.I. Lenin.

Chronology

  • 1921, February - March The uprising of soldiers and sailors in Kronstadt. Strikes in Petrograd.
  • 1921, March Adoption by the Tenth Congress of the RCP (b) of the decision on the transition to a new economic policy.
  • December 1922 Founding of the USSR
  • 1924, January Adoption of the Constitution of the USSR at the II All-Union Congress of Soviets.
  • 1925, December XIV Congress of the RCP (b). Adoption of a course towards the industrialization of the national economy of the USSR.
  • 1927, December XV Congress of the RCP (b). Course towards collectivization Agriculture THE USSR.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics- that existed from 1922 to 1991 in Europe and Asia. The USSR occupied 1/6 of the inhabited land and was the largest country in the world in terms of area on the territory that by 1917 was occupied by the Russian Empire without Finland, part of the Polish Kingdom and some other territories (the land of Kars, now Turkey), but with Galicia, Transcarpathia , part of Prussia, Northern Bukovina, Southern Sakhalin and the Kuriles.

According to the 1977 Constitution, The USSR was proclaimed a single union multinational and socialist state.

Formation of the USSR

On December 18, 1922, the Plenum of the Central Committee adopted the draft Union Treaty, and on December 30, 1922, the First Congress of Soviets was convened. At the Congress of Soviets, a report on the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was made by the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party I.V. Stalin, reading the text of the Declaration and the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR.

The USSR included the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR (Ukraine), the BSSR (Belarus) and the ZSFSR (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan). The heads of delegations of the republics present at the congress signed the Treaty and the Declaration. The creation of the Union was legally formalized. The delegates elected a new composition of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR.

Declaration on the formation of the USSR. Title page

On January 31, 1924, the II Congress of Soviets approved the Constitution of the USSR. Allied people's commissariats were created, which were in charge of foreign policy, defense, transport, communications, and planning. In addition, the issues of the borders of the USSR and the republics, admission to the Union were subject to the jurisdiction of the supreme authorities. In solving other issues, the republics were sovereign.

Meeting of the Council of Nationalities of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. 1927

During the 1920-1930s. the USSR included: Kazakh SSR, Turkmen SSR, Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR. From the ZSFSR (Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), the Georgian SSR, the Armenian SSR and the Azerbaijan SSR separated and formed independent republics within the USSR. The Moldavian Autonomous Republic, which was part of Ukraine, received the status of a union one. In 1939, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were included in the Ukrainian SSR and the BSSR. In 1940 Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia joined the USSR.

The collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which united 15 republics, occurred in 1991.

Education of the USSR. The development of the union state (1922-1940)

Brought complete destruction to Bolshevik Russia. For its further existence, it needed someone to rely on. First of all, these were the closest neighbors: Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. The Bolsheviks coped with their task. As a result, on December 30, 1922, the USSR was formed at the First Congress of Soviets. It signed an agreement on the relationship between the central government and the allied bodies.

The prerequisites for the formation of the USSR were as follows:

    In the RSFSR, power belonged to the Bolsheviks. In their striving to extend it to the Union republics, they achieved great success.

    The Russian language was widespread on the territory of all nationalities.

    The entire vast territory was connected by a single railway network.

Reasons for the formation of the USSR

The reasons for the formation of the USSR were as follows:

    Foreign policy. The Bolshevik Party sought to extend its power over as much territory as it could cover.

    Economic. Undermined civil war the economy led Russia to starvation. She needed the support of the Union republics.

    Territorial. During food deliveries, it was necessary to move freely. A single state created optimal conditions for this.

    Cultural. Despite their different roots, the peoples lived together for a long time, and this led to the formation of some common traditions.

    Political. The government apparatus of the union republics, which consisted of the Bolsheviks, was strictly subordinate to the central government.

Consolidation stages

The main stages of unification in the early years of the formation of the USSR are presented in the table.

Union name

Description

Political

The military-political union between Russia, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus was signed in the form of a decree. On its basis, the overall military command was carried out from Moscow. Also from there the management of the united finances was carried out.

Economic

1920-1921

Economic agreements were concluded between the union republics. The formed body of the Supreme Council of National Economy was located in Moscow and directed the entire industry. For this, the State Planning Commission was developed, which was supervised by Krzhizhanovsky. At the same time, the Federal Committee for the Development of Agricultural Production and Land Use was created.

Diplomatic

February 1922

In 1922, an international conference was held in Genoa on the post-war reconstruction of European countries. A delegation consisting of representatives of the Union republics was sent there.

Stalin and Lenin principles of building a new country

There were two points of view on the formation of a single state. One development was, and the other.

Stalin's formulation was as follows:

  1. All union republics were part of the RSFSR as autonomies.
  2. The authorities of the RSFSR became the highest in the new state.

Lenin's point of view was as follows.:

  1. All union republics should not be included, but united together with the RSFSR into a single state on an equal footing.
  2. In the new formation, it is necessary to create the highest bodies of power of the Union.

Stalin's plans were to create a centralized state. Lenin looked further. In the future, he wanted to join the Union and other European countries.

As time has shown, Lenin's point of view after 70 years led to the collapse of the association.

Difficulties of unification

Already the first steps towards unification showed how difficult the process was. On the basis of an agreement between the union republics, most industries were subordinated to the people's commissariats of the RSFSR.

This state of affairs caused discontent on the part of other republics. In fact, by delegating power, they were deprived of the opportunity to make independent decisions. At the same time, there was a declaration on the independence of the republics in the sphere of government. Stalin began to have difficulties in promoting the idea of ​​the republic joining the RSFSR on the rights of autonomies.

At this time, Lenin put forward his concept of uniting all the republics on an equal footing. The name of such an entity was first proposed by the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia, but then changed to the USSR. Lenin motivated his proposal by saying that the republics should enter the association in such a way that the principles of good neighborliness and respect would be implemented. At the same time, a single administration from representatives of the union republics should be created.

Formation of the USSR

Map: Formation of the USSR. Development of the Union State (1922-1940). 15 republics gradually united into one powerful country, which had a very strong military and economic potential. On December 30, 1922, at the Congress of Soviets, allied treaties and a declaration on the formation of the USSR were signed.

The official date of the formation of the USSR is December 30, 1922. At this time, the First Congress of Soviets took place. The republics included:

  • RSFSR;
  • Ukraine;
  • Belarus:
  • republics of the Caucasus.

The congress adopted a declaration on the formation of the USSR and the Union Treaty.

In subsequent years, the USSR already included 15 republics. Added to the previous ones:

  • Kazakhstan;
  • Kyrgyzstan;
  • Turkmenistan;
  • Tajikistan;
  • Uzbekistan;
  • Azerbaijan;
  • Turkmenistan;
  • Georgia;
  • Latvia;
  • Lithuania;
  • Estonia;
  • Moldova.

For some time, the Republic of Finland was included.

The declaration reflected the policy of the Soviet state. Its goals for the coming years were declared.

Some of the quotes read as follows:

  1. At the present time, the whole world is divided into 2 camps: and.
  2. The main aspiration of the USSR is a world revolution.
  3. Any republic that has embarked on the socialist path of development has open access to the USSR.
  4. There was a call to unite the world proletariat against the capitalist system.

First constitution

The document was adopted at the II Congress of Soviets. On its basis, the jurisdiction of the USSR included the following issues:

  1. Foreign and domestic trade.
  2. Questions of war and peace.
  3. Leadership of the armed forces.
  4. Economic issues and the formation of the country's budget.
  5. legislative initiative.
  6. All republics were part of the USSR on a voluntary basis. Territorial changes could only be carried out after agreement with them.

Authorities

The following authorities were approved in the Constitution:

    The supreme body of power in the USSR was the Congress of Soviets. Only he had the right to fix the Constitution or to amend it. He was elected from the city councils.

    The Central Executive Committee ruled the state during the break between congresses. It consisted of the Council of Nationalities and the Union Council.

    The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR resolved issues of the state between sessions of the Central Executive Committee.

    The executive body of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR was the Council of People's Commissars. It consisted of a chairman, a deputy and ten people's commissars.

The republics had the opportunity to express their interests through government bodies such as the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the Council of Nationalities. According to the Constitution, the main power was concentrated in the center. Thus, the leadership of all the union republics could be carried out from there.

Bolsheviks occupied the main posts of all central and allied bodies. As a result, the party exercised total control over the activities of the newly created state.

Country leaders

The entire list of leaders of the USSR from the moment of its formation to the collapse is presented in the table.

Leadership period

Position held

1917–1921 and 1924

In the first period, he served

Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, and then 1 year

Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.

During his reign, he held 4 highest posts in the state: General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks); General Secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks); General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party; Soviet Union; Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

Malenkov

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Andropov

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Chernenko

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Gorbachev

1985–1991 and 1991

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and later President of the USSR.

Significance and consequences of the formation of the USSR

As a result of the political activity of the Bolsheviks, a huge multinational state was created. Centralized management has made it possible to implement a number of large-scale projects on its territory. In the shortest possible time was held industry and agriculture. The country began to develop rapidly. Many industrial enterprises were built and the whole country was electrified.

However, all these achievements were based on the unprecedented enthusiasm of the population, and this could not continue forever. During the years of Soviet power, the standard of living of the working people increased much less than in the capitalist world. This was carefully hidden by the government, so many barriers were created to travel abroad, especially to capitalist countries. However, this situation could not last long. , which began under Gorbachev, revealed to the population all the shortcomings of the socialist system, and after a few years the USSR ceased to exist.

An important role in the successful socialist construction was played by the state association of the Soviet socialist republics. The voluntary unification of the sovereign Soviet republics into a single union multinational socialist state was dictated by the course of their political, economic and cultural development and was prepared practically as a result of the implementation of the Leninist national policy. The joint struggle of the peoples of the Soviet republics against external and internal enemies showed that the contractual relations between them, established in the early years of Soviet power, were not enough to restore the economy and further socialist construction, in order to defend their state independence and independence. It was possible to successfully develop the national economy only if all the Soviet republics were united into a single economic entity. Of great importance was the fact that historically there was an economic division of labor and interdependence between the various regions of the country. This led to mutual assistance and close economic ties. The threat of military intervention from the imperialist states demanded unity in foreign policy and the strengthening of the country's defense capability.

Union cooperation of the republics was especially important for those non-Russian peoples who had to go the way from pre-capitalist forms of economy to socialism. The formation of the USSR followed from the presence of a socialist way of life in the national economy and from the very nature of Soviet power, international in its essence.

In 1922, a mass movement of working people for unification into a single union state developed in all the republics. In March 1922 it was proclaimed Transcaucasian Federation, which took shape in December 1922 in Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR). The question of the forms of unification of the republics was developed and discussed in the Central Committee of the Party. The idea of ​​autonomization, i.e., the entry of independent Soviet republics into the RSFSR on the rights of autonomy, put forward by I. V. Stalin (from April 1922 General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Party) and supported by some other party workers, was rejected by Lenin, then by the October Plenum (1922) of the Central Committee RCP (b).
Lenin developed a fundamentally different form of unification of the independent republics. He proposed the creation of a new public entity - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, into which all the Soviet republics would enter together with RSFSR on equal terms. The congresses of Soviets of the Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, TSFSR, held in December 1922, as well as the 10th All-Russian Congress of Soviets, recognized the timely unification of the Soviet republics into a single union state. On December 30, 1922, the First Congress of Soviets of the USSR opened in Moscow, which approved the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR. It formulated the basic principles for the unification of the republics: equality and voluntariness of their entry into the USSR, the right to freely secede from the Union and access to the Union for new Soviet socialist republics. The congress considered and approved the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR. Initially, the USSR included: RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, ZSFSR. The formation of the USSR was a triumph of Lenin's national policy and was of world-historical significance. It became possible thanks to the victory of the October Revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the creation of a socialist order in the economy. The 1st Congress of Soviets elected the supreme body of power of the USSR - the Central Executive Committee of the USSR (chairmen: M. I. Kalinin, G. I. Petrovsky, N. N. Narimanov and A. G. Chervyakov). At the 2nd session of the Central Executive Committee, the government of the USSR was formed - the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, headed by Lenin.

The unification of material and labor resources in a single state was of great importance for successful socialist construction. Lenin, speaking in November 1922 at the plenum of the Moscow City Council and summing up the results of the five years of Soviet power, expressed confidence that "... out of NEP Russia there will be socialist Russia" (ibid., p. 309).

In the autumn of that year, Lenin fell seriously ill. While ill, he wrote a number of important letters and articles: “Letter to the Congress”, “On giving legislative functions to the State Planning Committee”, “On the question of nationalities or on “autonomization”, “Pages from a diary”, “On cooperation”, “On our revolution”, “How do we reorganize the Rabkrin”, “Less is better”. In these works, Lenin summed up the results of the development of Soviet society and indicated specific ways of building socialism: the industrialization of the country, the co-operation of peasant farms (collectivization), the conduct of a cultural revolution, and the strengthening of the socialist state and its armed forces. Lenin's instructions, made by him in his last articles and letters, formed the basis for the decisions of the 12th Party Congress (April 1923) and all subsequent policy of the Party and government. Summing up the results of the NEP for 2 years, the congress outlined ways to implement the New Economic Policy. The decisions of the congress on the national question contained a comprehensive program of struggle for the elimination of the economic and cultural inequality inherited from the past between peoples.

Despite significant successes in restoring the national economy, in 1923 the country was still going through serious difficulties. There were about 1 million unemployed. Up to 4,000 small and medium-sized light and food industry enterprises, three-fourths of retail trade, and about half of wholesale and retail trade were in the hands of private capital. The Nepmen in the city, the kulaks in the countryside, the remnants of the defeated SR-Menshevik parties and other hostile forces waged a struggle against Soviet power. Economic difficulties were exacerbated by a crisis in the sale of manufactured goods, caused by differences in the rates of recovery of industry and agriculture, shortcomings in planning, and violations of price policy by industrial and commercial authorities. Prices for manufactured goods were high, while prices for agricultural products were extremely low. The discrepancy in prices (the so-called scissors) could lead to a narrowing of the base of industrial production, undermining industry, and weakening the alliance between the working class and the peasantry. Measures were taken to eliminate the difficulties that had arisen, to eliminate the sales crisis: the prices of manufactured goods were reduced, and the monetary reform (1922-24) was successfully carried out, which led to the establishment of a hard currency.

Taking advantage of the acute internal as well as the prevailing international situation and Lenin's illness, the Trotskyists launched new attacks on the party. They blackened the work of the Central Committee of the Party, demanded the freedom of factions and groupings, opposed lowering the prices of goods, proposed raising taxes on peasants, closing down unprofitable enterprises (which were of great national economic importance), and increasing the import of industrial products from abroad. The 13th Party Conference (January 1924), condemning the Trotskyists, declared that “... in the face of the present opposition we have before us not only an attempt to revise Bolshevism, not only a direct departure from Leninism, but also a clearly expressed petty-bourgeois deviation” (“CPSU in resolutions…”, 8th ed., vol. 2, 1970, p. 511).

On January 31, 1924, the 2nd Congress of Soviets of the USSR approved the first Constitution of the USSR. It was based on the Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the USSR, adopted by the First All-Union Congress of Soviets in 1922. The Central Executive Committee included two equal chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. A single union citizenship was established: a citizen of each republic is a citizen of the USSR. The Constitution provided the working people of the USSR with broad democratic rights and freedoms and active participation in government. But at that time, in an atmosphere of acute class struggle, the Soviet government was forced to deprive voting rights of class alien elements: kulaks, merchants, ministers of religious cults, former police and gendarmerie employees, etc. The Constitution of the USSR was of great international and internal significance. In accordance with its text, the constitutions of the union republics were developed and approved.

Nation-state construction continued. The process of the state structure of the Russian Federation was being completed (by 1925 it included, in addition to provinces, 9 autonomous republics and 15 autonomous regions). In 1924, a number of counties of the Smolensk, Vitebsk and Gomel provinces, populated mainly by Belarusians, were transferred from the RSFSR to the BSSR, as a result of which the territory of the BSSR more than doubled and the population almost tripled. The Moldavian ASSR was formed as part of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1924-25, the national-state delimitation of the Soviet republics of Central Asia was carried out, as a result of which the peoples of Central Asia received the opportunity to create sovereign national states. From the regions of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the Bukhara and Khorezm Republics, inhabited by Uzbeks and Turkmens, the Uzbek SSR and the Turkmen SSR were formed. From the regions of the Turkestan ASSR and the Bukhara Republic inhabited by Tajiks, the Tajik ASSR was formed, which became part of the Uzbek SSR. The areas inhabited by Kazakhs, which were previously part of the Turkestan ASSR, were reunited with the Kazakh ASSR. From the areas inhabited by the Kirghiz, the Kirghiz Autonomous Okrug was formed as part of the RSFSR.

The 3rd Congress of Soviets of the USSR (May 1925) accepted the newly formed union republics, the Uzbek SSR and the Turkmen SSR, into the USSR.

When talking about the collapse of the Soviet Union, August 19, 1991, the date of the creation of the State Emergency Committee, is often taken as a starting point. With his help, a desperate attempt was made to save the former USSR, but the putsch led to the opposite results. He not only did not stop the collapse of the empire, but even accelerated it - after a few months the USSR ceased to exist.

However, the chain of events that culminated in the dissolution of the USSR began six years earlier, when Mikhail Gorbachev, a member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU, was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party. He was only the sixth general secretary in the entire history of the USSR, counting from 1922, but he was also the last.

March 1985

Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. His election was to the liking of many, as it promised to breathe new life into a state exhausted by years of stagnation.

For many years the country was ruled by communists of the old school, and the last three leaders of the party (Brezhnev, Chernenko, Andropov) were elderly and sick people. The funeral of general secretaries has become almost an annual event.

Gorbachev was then 54 years old, and compared to the previous leaders of the party (and the Politburo as a whole), he seemed young and energetic. And he spoke about the need for change. With his light hand, the words "perestroika" and "glasnost" entered many languages ​​of the world.

In a stagnant and closed society, both of these words sounded like a call to revolution. At the same time, even Gorbachev himself did not realize that the changes he had initiated would lead to the collapse of the empire and the removal of the Iron Curtain that had divided Europe since the end of the Second World War.

December 1985

Gorbachev appointed Boris Yeltsin, head of the Sverdlovsk regional committee, as secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee, until then little known.

Even earlier, he nominated Secretary of the Communist Party of Georgia Eduard Shevardnadze to the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, removing Andrei Gromyko, a veteran of Soviet diplomacy, who for many years "faithfully carried out the foreign policy of the USSR," from office.

Like Gorbachev, Shevardnadze advocated the liberalization and democratization of Soviet society. Both have been thinking about it for years - and now they are getting down to business together.

Established in Moscow, Yeltsin also understands the need for change. He carries out a thorough purge in the musty Moscow party "beau monde", dismissing and depriving representatives of the party elite of benefits.

1987

In January and June, Gorbachev speaks at sessions of the Central Committee of the CPSU with proposals for serious political and economic reforms. In those years, the concept of "serious reforms" was reduced to the introduction of elements of democracy in certain areas of public and party life.

Be that as it may, perestroika began in earnest. The outside world watched the actions of the Moscow reformer with intense attention and speculated whether he would succeed. Gorbachev still enjoyed serious support both in the USSR and abroad.

In November, Gorbachev publishes a book explaining his aspirations and the meaning of the reforms. It instantly becomes a bestseller in the USSR and is reprinted in many countries of the world.

In November 1987, Yeltsin had to resign as secretary of the CPSU MGK. He rushed perestroika too much, understood it too radically, and criticized Gorbachev for his slowness. Yeltsin's personal grudge against Gorbachev will play an important role in the subsequent development of events. It will also help that Gorbachev leaves Yeltsin in Moscow, in the post of Deputy Minister of Construction.

1988

Perestroika hits the first pitfall. The policy of reforms had previously met with resistance from the apparatchiks, who obstructed Gorbachev's economic reforms. Now the newspaper Sovetskaya Rossiya is publishing an appeal to true communists to stand up against Gorbachev's reforms.

The appeal takes the form of a letter from the Leningrad chemist and staunch Stalinist Nina Andreeva. It is believed that this letter did not accidentally appear at the moment when Gorbachev was abroad.

Meanwhile, in the Baltic countries, hopes for the restoration of independence are growing. In Estonia, the Popular Front is being formed, which is not yet called a political party, but de facto is one - this is happening in a country with a legalized one-party system. Estonia's example is followed by Latvia and Lithuania.

The first national conflicts are also indicated. The issue of Nagorno-Karabakh leads to armed clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia.

Later, riots begin in North and South (which is part of Georgia) Ossetia and in Abkhazia. The clashes are held under the slogans of demands for independence from Georgia. Gorbachev continues to follow the planned path. He receives US President Ronald Reagan in Moscow, and later comes up with a proposal to introduce the post of president and a parliament in the USSR, formed on the basis of alternative elections.

March 1989

Elections are underway for a new supreme body of state power in the USSR - the Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin is elected from Moscow by a large number of votes, thereby returning to the political arena.

Live TV broadcasts from the congress meeting room begin. Their popularity is such that millions of people stop working and the authorities cancel the broadcasts.

Gorbachev withdraws the last troops from Afghanistan, ending a costly and highly unpopular war. His authority in the country is still high.

As Democrats celebrate the introduction of the electoral system, hardliners prepare to fight back. A peaceful demonstration in Georgia two weeks after the elections was brutally dispersed by the troops. There was no shooting, sharpened sapper shovels and poison gas were used. 19 people were killed, mostly women. Gorbachev claims that he knew nothing about the impending massacre.

July 1989

Gorbachev announces that the countries of the Warsaw Pact are free to decide their own future. By this time, the Polish "Solidarity" had already largely undermined the communist regime in the country. In August, Lech Walesa becomes President of Poland.

Raise their heads and the peoples of other countries of Eastern Europe. They are aware of how great the risk is: the Hungarian uprising of 1956 and the Prague Spring of 1968 were brutally suppressed by Soviet troops.

But this time the will of the peoples triumphs. In September, Hungary shocks the world by opening its border with the West. In the old days, this completely unthinkable step should have been followed by a crushing blow from Moscow, and thousands of residents of Eastern Europe rushed to Austria.

November 1989

The destruction of the Berlin Wall, which for decades served as the most expressive symbol of the Cold War, becomes an incredible surge in "people's power". But Gorbachev can still use force and keep his empire from collapsing. The world watches the destruction of the wall with a question on its lips: will it intervene?

Gorbachev prefers not to interfere. Scenes of popular rejoicing, meetings of relatives and neighbors separated by a wall are broadcast around the world. It is hard to believe that until recently those who tried to break free were mercilessly shot while trying to get over the wall.

Now it's Czechoslovakia's turn. During the bloodless Velvet Revolution, the communists are removed from power, and the playwright Vaclav Havel becomes president. Towards the end of the year there is a coup in Romania. There was bloodshed during the suppression of the uprising in Timisoara. But the cruel dictator Ceausescu is overthrown and, along with his wife, is shot on the very day of Christmas.

But in the course of the triumphant march of freedom through the countries of the communist bloc, Gorbachev's popularity in the USSR began to fall. Since the beginning of his economic reforms, food shortages have been increasing, and living standards have been falling. People are starting to get disillusioned with perestroika.

January 1990

The Soviet regime is dying, but even in convulsions it is trying to show its former power. Having given freedom to the countries of the Warsaw Pact, Moscow is not going to grant independence to the Soviet republics. The biggest concern is the unrest in the Baltics. Gorbachev is trying to keep the Baltic states in a looser but still Soviet federation.

In mid-January, Soviet troops brutally crack down on demonstrators in Baku. At least a hundred people died (perhaps many more).

Nevertheless, the reforms continue, and the demands to speed them up are getting louder. Gorbachev is accused of indecision. In response to mass demonstrations in February, Gorbachev called on the Congress of People's Deputies to introduce a multi-party system. The notorious sixth article of the constitution, which legitimized the undivided power of the communists, is being revoked.

Perestroika brings Gorbachev the title of the first (and last) president of the USSR. Before him, all six sovereign leaders of the country were general secretaries of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The Supreme Soviet elects Gorbachev as president.

July 1990

Boris Yeltsin leaves the ranks of the Communist Party. Events are drawing to a close. In the summer, Ukraine declares its independence, followed by Armenia, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan.

Outside the country, Gorbachev is put on a pedestal. In October, shortly after the reunification of Germany, he is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

But in the USSR, Gorbachev has a hard time. The economy is bursting at the seams. All its gilding has faded from perestroika. The president has to choose between the radical and moderate reforms put forward by his prime minister, Nikolai Ryzhkov. Gorbachev chooses the middle path.

Yeltsin accuses Gorbachev of being half-hearted, of trying to cross a hedgehog with a snake. Gorbachev no longer suits anyone and finds himself in political isolation. While all the sub-Soviet peoples are dreaming of independence, he is still toying with the idea of ​​a new Union of Independent Soviet Republics.

Gorbachev warns against the "dark forces of nationalism." In December, he states that the country needs a strong hand. Shevardnadze resigns as foreign minister, saying that things are moving towards a dictatorship. Nevertheless, Gorbachev is seeking special powers.

Abandoned by the most radical of his ministers, Gorbachev is largely moving towards a political hard line.

June 1991

The Russian Federation, which forms the core of the Soviet Union, is holding republican elections for the first time. The Russians elect Boris Yeltsin as president. The Kremlin now controls both the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation. Old adversaries, Gorbachev and Yeltsin are working next door.

Everything is ready for the denouement. Power in the Kremlin is contested by Soviet President Gorbachev, Russian President Yeltsin and old Communist Party cadres.

Meanwhile, the peoples are demanding more and more insistently for independence. In January, Soviet troops violently suppress demonstrations in Lithuania. More than 20 people were killed, 13 of them during the assault on the TV tower in Vilnius.

The March referendum shows that the majority of the inhabitants of the USSR are in favor of maintaining the reformed union, but the Baltic countries are decisively leading the movement for a complete exit from the union.

Causes of the collapse of the USSR

The collapse of the USSR was a phenomenon at that stage, in general, natural. The coup had to take place, and here it doesn’t even matter when it happened and who would come to power at the same time. But one cannot discount the random factor either: events developed rapidly and, at the same time, very dramatically.

The most important reason was the struggle for power that broke out at that moment throughout Russia. First of all, this is an open confrontation between the central government and the RSFSR, which held different political views: RSFSR President Boris Yeltsin demanded more radical measures from Gorbachev in carrying out reforms. And it was Yeltsin who would later seize the initiative from the State Emergency Committee and come to power on the wave of popular popularity. It is difficult to say what he was guided by: his real democratic convictions or the desire to seize power. I suppose that at the initial stage, the first one dominated.

Around the same time, separatist tendencies began to appear in the Union republics, primarily in the Baltic countries, where there were numerous clashes between troops and demonstrators demanding independence, and the overwhelming majority of the population spoke out for sovereignty, and in the Caucasus, where the desire for independence caused a new round of long-term conflict that continues to this day.

Plus, a rotten political system that could no longer provide effective management in the regions due to the incredibly high level of local corruption on the one hand and the weakness of the central government on the other.

The agonizing planned economy completes the picture: rapidly rising inflation rates (in last years the existence of the USSR, prices grew quite rapidly), the gap between the cash and non-cash ruble, destructive for any economy, the planned system bursting at the seams and breaking economic ties with the union republics.

An ideological blunder also played its part: the brutal suppression of dissent, which flourished under Brezhnev and Andropov, and communism, which did not come in 1980, discredited the authorities even more.

The future of the Soviet Union was sealed. And the GKChP became just that sign when it suddenly became clear that it was no longer possible to live like this.

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